
HISIO 




Labberton's 



Universal History 

From the Earliest Times to the Present 
— In the Light of Recent Discoveries, with 
Genealogical and Geographical Illustrations 



BY 



Robert H, Labberton 




:> ) -> ^ .:> 



SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY 



NKW YORK 



BOSTON 
1902 



CHICAGO 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Recsived 

SEP. S 1902 

COPVBIQHT ENTRY 

CLASS O/XXc. No 

A/-0 coy 

COPY 3^ 



Copyright, 1871, 
By ROBER'l' H. LABBERTON. 



Copyright, 1879, 
By CLAXTON, REMSEN, AND HAFFELFINGER. 



Copyright, 1884, 1885, 1886, 
By TOWNSSND MAC CODN. 



Copyright, 1902, 
By silver, BURDETT & COMPANY. 



^ ft i .c, c 



\ 



TO 
M. H. MESSCHEKT, 

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED 

WITH AFFECTIONATE ESTEEM, IN GRATITUDE FOR MANY KINDNESSES. 

BY 
HIS OLD FRIEND 

THE AUTHOR. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
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PREFACE. 



The Plates of my former Atlas having been destroyed by fire, I hereby offer the public 
an essentially new Historical Atlas, accompanied by a compendium of general history, thus 
forming a basis for that geographic treatment of history which is essential to a clear under- 
standing of human society. 

For the last twenty years I have been engaged on a large historical and genealogical 
atlas, which unfortunately has reached such dimensions as to make its publication impossible. 

Many maps and plans from this larger work are published in the present atlas, especially 
the maps on Eastern History, which are chiefly based on Rawlinson: Cuneiform Inscriptions 
of Western Asia, 5 vols. Eecords of the Past, 12 vols. Journal Asiatique, Hevue Archeolo- 
gique. Zeitschrif t der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift f iir aegyptische 
Sprache imd Altei-thumskunde. Schkader : Die Keilinschriften und das alte Testament. 
ScHRADER : Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung. Delitzsch : AYo lag das Paradies ? etc. 

In the text my chief aim has been to give, in an attractive form, the leading events of 
the history of the world (not a bundle of particular histories), free from unnecessary detail. 

. The question, however, arises : What is unnecessary detail ? It has been duly remarked 
that " a book which aims to teach just what the pupil ought to remember, and no more, is 
sure to fail in accomplishing even so much ; for history differs from most other branches of 
study in this — it is impossible to remember isolated facts ; they must be connected and illus- 
trated by details in themselves indifferent, so that the mind may get hold of them and retain 
them. Just as pure nutriment must be mixed with matter which contains no nutriment, but 
which enables the stomach to digest the food, so in history the facts which are to be fixed in 
the memory must be combined with facts that are not expected to be retained, but without 
which the leading events would speedily be forgotten." 

I have added to the table of contents, at the end of the main divisions, a brief but care- 
fully chosen general reference to standard works, as an aid to students who may desire to 
work out for themselves, in greater detail, any special line of investigation. 

As this book is designed chiefly for the use of those who know no language but English, 
I have confined these references strictly to English works, although the temptation has been 
great to put in some German or French masterpieces, especially when dealing with those 
portions of history where the supply of English material was either scanty or wholly wanting.* 

One exception has been made in favor of Lepsius' " Denkmaeler," which not only made 
the study of Egyptian history possible, but laid the firm foundation for a scientific treatment 
of the history of the hoary East — the cradle of our race and civilization. ■' ' 

POBERT H. LaBBERTON. 

The Pines, Orange County, N. C. 



PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION. 



My endeavor in this edition is to help my readers comprehend more fully the chief 
features of that most interesting drama called the History of the World ; and to aid me in my 
aun to make it so, the publishers have adorned the book with those masterpieces of engrav- 
ing which could assist in making the text both clear and interesting. These pictures, added 
to the historical maps and the genealogical tables, form a commentary on the text which will 
add greatly to its true understanding. 

It is necessary for such a book to be brief, but I sincerely hope I have never sacrificed 
clearness to brevity. 

My chief aim has been to give, in an attractive form, to general readers, what they most 
wish to know, and to students such facts and observations as will serve to bind together, what 
they have secured by their special studies. 

I have added to the table of contents, under each chapter, a brief but carefully chosen 
reference to standard works, and the most prominent magazine articles, as an aid to such 
readers who may desire to work out for themselves, in greater detail, any special line of inves- 
tigation. 

When we wish to get an idea of the chief features of a country we mount the heights, 
whence we can best take in the totality of the landscape. And so we must proceed in history. 

Great events and great men are the fixed points and the peaks of history, and it is thence 
that we can observe it in its totalit}', and follow it along its highways. 

History is one vast drama in which events are linked together, according to defined laws 
and in which the actors play parts, depending upon their own ideas and their own will. 

But men do not make the whole of history ; it has laws of higher origin. Men are unre- 
stricted agents, who produce for it results, and exercise over it an influence for which they 
are responsible. Although the plan has been strictly adhered to, to exclude all such matter as 
properly belongs to a book of reference, nevertheless it was indispensable to introduce such 
details as were necessary to show the connection between the great events. 

For history differs from most other studies in this, that the most perfect knowledge of 
the main facts is entirely secondary to the knowledge of their mutual bearing upon each 
other. 

Robert H. Labberton. 

New York. 



Note. — The present revision of this work was undertaken and well advanced in 1898 by 
the learned author himself, when his lamented death in the fall of that year left the task to 
be carried out by other hands. The publishers have sought to have the revision completed 
with utmost thoroughness, and the history brought down to the latest possible date. 

The Publishers. 
vi 



TABLE OF CONTENTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



HISTORY OF THE EAST TILL THE FOUN- 
DATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

Egypt until the Expulsion of the Hyksos . . 1 
Sources of Egyptian History. 
The Land and the People. 
The Old Empire of Memphis. 
The Old Empire of Thebes, 

Old Babylonia 3 

Sources of Babylonian History. 
The Land and the People. 
Old Babylonian History. 

The Egyptian Ascendency in Syria 6 

Sources of Syrian History. 
The New Egyptian Empire. 
Mesopotamia during the Struggle between 
Egyptians and Hittites. 

Western Asia after the Expulsion of the 
Egyptians 8 

The Decline of Egypt. 

The Holy Land and the Phoenicians. 

First Assyrian Empire. 

The Assyrian Ascendency in Western Asia.. 10 
The First Assyrian Empire. 
The Second Assyrian Empire. 
The Fall of Assyria. 

Asia after the Fall of Assyria 12 

Lydia and Media. 
Babylonia and Egypt. 

Foundation of the Persian Empire 13 

The Fall of Media. 

The Median Revolt. 

The Scythian Expedition. 

*:^* bibliography.— Max Dunker : History of 
Antiquity. Rawlinson : The Five Great Monarchies. 
Rawlinson : Ancient Egypt. Brugsch : Egypt under 
the Pharaohs. Stanley: History of the Jewish Church. 
V. Ranke : Universal History, vol. i. 

HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Before the Persian Wars 15 

' Sources of Greek History. 
Migrations and Settlements. 
The Main Settlements of the Hellenes. 
Attica and the Athenians. 



The Persian Wars 19 

What led to the Wars. 

First Attempt to Conquer Greece. 

Second Attempt to Conquer Greece. 

Third Attempt to Conquer Greece. 
After the Persian Wars 21 

The Peloponnesian War. 
Persia and Hellas 22 

From the Battle of Salamis to the Death of 
Alexander the Great. 

After the Death of Alexander the Great (Gene- 
alogy L). 

*** bibliography.- CuRTius: History of Greece, 
5 vols. Grote : History of Greece, 12 vols. Cox : His- 
tory of Greece, 2 vols. E. A. Freeman : History of 
Federal Government, vol. i. VV. W. Lloyd : The Age 
of Pericles. W. W. Lloyd : Sicily to the Athe?iian 
War. G. W. Cox : The Athenian Empire. C. Sankey : 
The Spartan and Theban Supremacies. On Alexander 
the Great, see Niebuhr's Lectures on Ancient History, 
Lectures 80-112. v. Ranke : Universal History, vol. i. 
And on Alexander's Successors, an excellent essay in vol. 
149 of the Quarterly Review. Finlay : History of 
Greece from the Conquest of the Romans, 1 vols. 

GREEK LITERATURE.— MiiLLER and Donaldson : 
History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, 3 vols. 
Mure : A Critical History of the Language and Litera- 
ture of Ancient Greece,?) wo\s. Gladstone: Studies on 
the Homeric Age and Homer. Bonitz : Origin of the 
Homeric Poems. Benjamin : Troy. Jebb : Attic 
Orators, 2 vols. Symonds : The Greek Poets, 2 vols. 

HISTORY OF ROME. 

Until the Burning of Rome by the Celts . . 27 

Sources of Roman History. 

The Land and the People. 

The Beginnings of Rome. 

The Political Revolution of 510 B.C. 

The Social Revolution of 493 B.C. 

The Legal Revolution of 450 B.C. 

The Burning of Rome. 
From the Rebuilding op Rome to the Estab- 
lishment of the Empire 32 

The Consolidation of Central Italy. 

The First and Second Punic Wars. 

The Conquest of the East. 

The Third Punic War. 

The Achaean War. 

The Numantine War. 

The Age of the Civil Wars. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



The Roman Empire 46 

Regulation of the Empire. 

Constitution of the Empire from 30 B.C. to 
300 A.D. 

The Julian House (Genealogy II.). 

The First Anarchy. 

The Flavii. 

Britain. 

Tlie Adoptive Emperors. 

The Barrack Emperors (Genealogy HI.). 

The Partnership Emperors (Genealogies TV. 
and v.). 

The Extinction of the Roman Empire in the 
West. 

*^* BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Roman History as a whole 
(from 753 B.C. till 476 a.d.)— Merivale : General His- 
tory of Rome, 1 vol. Dubuy : History of Rome (in 
course of publication). Roman History until the End of 
the Republic— MoMMSEN : History of Rome, 4 vols. 
Ihne : History of Rome, 5 vols. Liddell : A History 
of Rome, 1 yo]. Long: The Decline of the Roman Re- 
public, 5 vols. Arnold : History of the Later Com- 
moyiwealth, 2 vols. The Roman Empire— Merivale : 
The Romans under the Empire, 7 vols. Rawlinson : 
Sixth Great Monarchy. Seeley : Roman Imperialism . 
De Quincey : The Ccesars. Congreve : Roman Em- 
pire of the West. Gibbon : Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
man Empire, chapters i.-xxxvi. On Special Periods of 
Roman History— Ihne : Early Rome. Arnold : His- 
tory of Rome (reaches into the Second Punic War). 
Wickham and Cramer : The Passage of Hannihal over 
the Alps. Smith : Rome and Carthage. Trollope : 
Cicero ; and also Forsyth : Cicero. Froude : Ccesar. 
Beesley : Cataline, Clodius, Tiberius. Hodgkin : 
Italy and her Invaders. Kingsley : The Roman and 
the Teuton. Sheppard ; The Fall of Rome and the 
Rise of the New Nationalities. Ozanam : History of 
Civilization in the Fifth Century. Elton : Origins of 
English History. Rhys : Celtic Britain. Scarth : 
Roman Britain. 

HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
From Theodoric the Great to Charles the 
Great 54 

Romans and Teutons. 

Franks, Burgiindians, and Goths (Genealogy 
VII). 

English, Saxons, and Celts (Genealogy XXI.). 

The Arabic Ascendency (Genealogy YI.). 

*;}:* BIBLIOGRAPHY.— White: The Eighteen Chris- 
tian Centuries. Greene : History of the Middle Ages. 
Dunham : History of Europe during the Middle Ages. 
Curteis : History of the Roman Empire (395-800). 
Church : The Beginnings of the Middle Ages. Gibbon : 
Decli7ie and Fall, chapters xxxvii.-liii. Michelet : 
History of France. Guizot : History of France. 
Green : The Making of England. Grant- Allen : 
Anglo-Saxon Britain. Muir : Life of Mohammed ; and 
also Muir : The Cor&n. Syed Ameer Ali : Life of 
Mohammed. Kuenen : National Religions and Uni- 
versal Religions. Smith : Mohammed and Moham- 
medanism. Stobart : Islam and its Founder. Free- 
man : History and Conqiiests of the Saracens. 

From the Coronation of Charlemagne, in 800 
A.D,, TO the Beginning of the Crusades, in 
1095 A.D 62 

The Carlovingians (Genealogy VIII.). 
The Danish Conquest of England (Genealogies 
XXI. and XXII.). 



The Normans. 

Foundation of the Holy Roman Empire (Gene- 
alogy IX.). 

Foundation of the Kingdom of France (Gene- 
alogies VIII. and XXVI.). 

England and Normandy under the Norman 
Dynasty (Genealogy XXV.). 

The Feudal System. 

*^* BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Besides the Histories of 
France by Michelet, Guizot, Crowe, and Kitchin — 
Sismondi : The French under the Carlovingians. Sis- 
MONDi : France under the Feudal System. Cutts : 
Charlemagne. Bass-Mullinger : The Schools of 
Charles the Great, Guizot : History of Civilization in 
France. Thierry : The Formation and Progress of 
the Third Estate in France. Bryce : The Holy Roman 
Empire. Dunham : History of the Germanic Empire. 
Lewis : History of Germany. Zimmermann : Popu- 
lar History of Germany. Johnson : The Normans in 
Europe. Green : The Conquest of England. Free- 
man : The Norman Conquest. Wheaton : History of 
the Northmen. Worsaac : Danes and Northmen iti 
Great Britain. 

The Age of the Crusades 73 

The Causes which led to the Crusades. 

The Crusades 

England and France during the Age of the 
Crusades. 

Germany and Italy during the Age of the 
Crusades (Genealogies IX. and X.). 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Besides Michelet and Gui- 
zot— Gibbon : Decline and FaV, chapters Iviii. and lix. 
V. Sybel : The History and Literature of the Crusades. 
IVIiCHAUD : History of the Crzisades. Cox : The Cru- 
sades. Mills : A History of the Criisades. Procter : 
History of the Crusades. Villemain : Life of Gregory 
VII. MoRisoN : Life and Times of St. Bernard. 
Teste : History of the Wars of Frederi< k I. and the 
Communes of Lombardy. Kingston- Oliphant : His- 
tory of Frederick. II., Emperor of the Romans. Mon- 
TALEMBERT : The Monks of t .6 West. Amari : History 
of the War of the Sicilian Vespers. Stubbs : (.onstitu- 
tiojial History of England. Creasy : Rise and Prog- 
ress of the English Constitution. Thompson : Essay 
on Magna Charta. Freeman : Growth of the English 
Constitution. 

Age of the Mongol Invasions 84 

The First Mongol Invasion of Asia. 
Rise, Glory, and Fall of Old Russia. 
England and France during the First Mongol 

Invasion (Genealogy XXIII.). 
Germany and Italy during the First Mongol 

Invasion (Genealogies XI. and XIX.). 
Eastern Europe until 1356. 
The Rise of the Osmanli Empire. 
The Second Mongol Invasion. 
The Second Foundation of the Empire of 

the Osmanli. 
The Second Foundation of Russia. 

*^* BIBLIOGRAPHY.— HowoRTH : History of the 
Mongols. Hecker : Epidemics of the Middle Ages. 
Thorold-Rogers : A History of Agriculture and Prices 
in England. Burton : History of Scotland. Long- 
mans : History of Edivard HI. Brougham : The 
House of Lancaster in England and France. Gaird- 
NEB : The Houses of Lancaster and York. Tuckey : 
Joan of Arc. Jameson: Life and Times of Du Gues- 
celin. Ralston : Early Russian History. Rambaud : 
History of Rjissia. Freeman : The Ottoman Power 
of Europe. Creasy: History of the Ottoman Turks. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



Western Europe during the Fifteenth Cen- 
tury 97 

France and England (Genealogies XIV. and 

XXV.). 
The Empire and the Papacy (Genealogies XV. 

andXVIL). 
The Pjrenjean Peninsula. 
Italy (Genealogy XII.). 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Gairdner : History of 
rdcliard III. CoxE : History of the Eoufie of Austria. 
KiEK : History of Charles the Bold. Dunham : His- 
tory ofSpaiti a7id Portugal. Butts : History of Italy. 
Hazlitt : History of the Venetian Republic. Macchia- 
VELU : History of Florence. Trollope : History of 
Florence. Oliphant : The Makers of Florence. Gal- 
LENGA : History of Piedmont. Malleson : Studies 
from Genoese History. Reumond : Lorenzo de' Medici. 
Grimm : Life of Michel Angela. 



MODERN HISTORY. 

The Age of the Great Discoveries 108 

General Character. 

The Maritime Discoveries. 

*** bibliography.— Mayor : Prince Henry the 
Navigator. Helps : Life of Columbus. Prescott : 
History of the Conquest of Mexico. Prescott : His- 
tory of the Conquest of Peru. 

The Franco-Spanish Struggle for the Su- 
premacy in Italy 110 

The Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (Gene- 
alogy XII.). 

The Invasions of Italy by Louis XII. (Gene- 
alogy XXVI.). 

The Invasions of Italy by Francis II, (Gene- 
alogy XXVL): 

The First Tudors in England (Genealogy 

XXIV.). 

*:^* bibliography. - Symonds : Renaissance in 
Italy. Symonds : Sketches and Studies in Southern 
Europe. Burckhaedt : The Civilization of the Period 
of the Renaissance in Italy. Villari : Macchiavelli 
and his Times. Villari : Savonarola. Prescott : 
History of Ferdinand and Isabella. 

The Spanish Ascendency in Western Eu- 
rope 117 

The Age of Charles V. (Genealogies XIX. and 

XV.). 
Progress of the Turks (Genealogy VI.). 
England under the Children of Henry VIII. 

(Genealogy XXIV.). 
Age of Philip II. (Genealogies XIX. and 

XVIIL). 
The Ottoman Empire. 

*** bibliography. — Robertson : History of 
Charles V. Guizot : History of France, chapters 
xxviii.-xliii. Hausser : Period of the Reformation. 
Seebohm : The Protestant Revolution. Ranke : The 
Reformation in Germany. Ranke : Civil Wars and 
Monarchy in France. Besant : Coligny, and the Fail- 
ure of the French Reformation. Prescott : History 
of Philip II. Motley : The Rise of the Dutch Repub- 
lic. Froude : History of England from the Fall of 
Wolsey to the Armada. Creighton : The Age of Eliz- 
abeth. 



The Decline of the Spanish Ascendency 124 

Before the Breaking out of the Thirty Years' 
War (Genealogies XIII., XVII., XIX., and 

XXV.). 
The Thirty Years' War (Genealogy XVI.). 
England during the Thirty Years' War (Gene- 
alogy XXV.). 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Motley : History of the 
United Netherlands. Motley : John of Oldenbarne- 
velt. Gardiner : The Thirty Years' War. Gindely : 
Thirty Years'' War. Heydenreich : The Life of Gus- 
tavus Adolphus. Gardiner: The Pur ita}i Revolution. 
Guizot : English Revolution ; Oliver Cromivell ; Rich- 
ard Cromioell ; Monk. Carlyle : Oliver Cromwell's 
Letters and Speeches. Baird : History of the Hugue- 
nots. Bridges : France under Richelieu. Cousin : 
Richeliezi and Mazarin. 

The French Ascendency 133 

Age of Louis XIV. (Genealogies XV. and 
XXVL). 

*** bibliography.— Martin : Age of Louis XIV. 
Voltaire: Age of Louis XIV. Macaulay : History 
of England. Earl Stanhope : The Reign of Queen 
Anne. Morris : Age of Anne. 

Eastern Europe during the French Ascen- 
dency 137 

The Bipontine Family on the Swedish Throne 

(Genealogy XVII.). 
The House of Romanoff on the Russian Throne 

(Genealogy XXVIIL). 
The Ottoman Empire under Mohammed IV. 
The Great Northern War (Genealogy XXVIIL). 

*#* bibliography.— Schuyler: Life of Peter 
the Great. 

The Age of Frederick the Great 142 

The Trials of Prussia (Genealogy XX.). 

The Partition of Poland. 

*^* bibliography. — Mahon : History of Eng- 
land (1713-1TS.3). Lecky : History of England in the 
Eighteenth Century. Martin : Age of Louis XV. 
Broglie : The King''s {Louis X V.) Secret Correspond- 
ence xoUh his Agents. Carlyle: History of Frederick 
II. Longman : Frederick the Great and the Seven 
Years'' War. Broglie : Frederick the Ch^eat and Maria 
Theresa. Dunham : History of Poland, v. Sybel : 
First Partition of Poland. Fortnightly Review, voL xxii. 
v. Sybel : Second and Third Partition., History of the 
French Revolution, Books vi. and x. 

The Revolutionary Period 145 

The First French Republic. 

The First Empire. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Morris : The French Revo- 
lution and First Empire. Taine : Ancient Regime and 
French Revolution. Mignet : The French Revolution. 
V. Sybel : The French Revolution (1789-1790). Car- 
lyle : The French Revolution. Thiers : The Con- 
sulate and the Empire. Lanfrey : History of Napo- 
leon I. Seeley : The Life of Stein. Massey : History 
of Engla7id during the Reign of George III. 

The Restoration (Genealogies XXVL, XXVIL, 

and XXIX.). 

*:,=* BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Mueller: Political History 
of Recent Times. Metternich : Memoirs. Alison : 
History of Europe fn m 1815 to 1852. Macke.nzie : 
The Nineteenth Century. Wrightson : History of 
Modern Italy (1789-1850). Louis Blanc : The History 
of Ten Years (18.30-1840). Martineau : The History 
of England (1800-1854). 



IX 



TABLE OF CONTENTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



The Revolution of 1848. 

The Second Empire (1852-1870). 

*** BIBLIOGRArHY.— McCarthy : nist(yry of Our 
Oivn Times. Stratford de Redcliffe : The East- 
ern Question. KiNGLAKE : Invasion of the Crimea. 
HoziER : The Seven Weeks' War. Borbbtaedt and 
Dwter: TM Franco-German War. Busch: Bis- 
marck in the Franco-Prussian War. Fiwbyn : Italy 
from 1815 to 1878. De la Rive: Life of Cavour. 
Seelet : The Expansion of England. 

The Prussian Ascendency. 

*^:* BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Taylor : Russia before and 
after the War of 1877. Baker-Pasha : War in Bul- 
garia. Green : The Russian Army and its Cam- 
paigns in Turkey. 

India 165 

The Anglo-Indian Empire. 

Division of Africa among European Powers. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY.— J. TitLBOYS Wheeler : A 
Short History of India. Roper Lethbridge : A 
Short Manual of the History of India. Murray and 
others : Historical and Descriptive Account of British 
India. 

AMERICAN HISTORY. 

The Settlement of Nokth A^ierica 167 

Voyages of Discovery. 

Attempts at Colonization by the Latin and 
Teutonic Races. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY. — WiNSOR : Narrative and 
Critical History of America (VoL ii., Spanish Explora- 
tions and Settlements ; Vol. iii., English Explorations 
and Settlements; Vol. iv., French Explorations and 
Settlements, and those of the Portuguese, Dutch, and 
Swedes). J. G. Palfrey : History of New England. 
F. F. Charlevoise : History of Xeio France. Mrs. 
Martha Lamb : History of Neio York. 

TnK Anglo-French Struggle for the Suprem- 
acy IN North America 171 

Tlie English Colonies during the Eighteenth 

Century. 
The Anglo-French Struggle. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Pabkman : France and 
England in Xorth A merica. Shea : Discovery and 
Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. 



The Foundation of the Great Republic 173 

Before the Appeal to Arms. 
The Appeal to Arms. 

*^* BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Bancroft : History of the 
United States. Hildreth : History of the Fnited 
States. Greene : Historical View of the American 
Revohdion. Lossing : Field-Book of the Revolution. 
WiNsoR : Reader's Handbook of the American Revo- 
lution. 

The Formation of the Government 175 

Formation of the Constitution. 
Operation of the Constitution. 
The Thirty Years' Peace. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY.— J. B. McMasteb : History 
of the People of the United States. J as. Schouler : 
History of the American Republic. Alex. John- 
ston: History of Americaii Politics. H. v. Holst : 
Constitutional History of the United States. 

First Trials of the Great Republic 178 

English War of 1812. 

Florida. 

The Mexican War. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY.— B. J. LossiNG : Field-Book 
of the War of 1812. G. R. Fairbanks : History of 
Florida. R. S. Ripley : The War with Mexico. T. 
H. Benton : Thirty Years in the United States Senate. 

180 



The 



Great Trial— The Civil War 

The Causes of the Civil War. 

The War. 

After the War. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY.— COMTE de Paris : His- 
tory of the Civil War. J. W. Draper : History of the 
American Civil War. W. Swinton : Campaigns of 
the Army of the Potomac. Campaigns of the Civil 
War, 12 vols., published bj' Scribner. The Xavy in the 
Civil War, 3 vols., published by Scribner. 

Mexico 186 

Early Struggles. 

The Napoleonic Designs. 

The Mexican Empire. 

*** BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Flint : Mexico under 
Maximilian. Conkling : Mexico and the Mexicans. 

South and Central America 189 

Genealogies 192 



LIST OF MAPS, 



HISTORY OF THE EAST. 



Plate 
I. 



Babylonia before the Semitic Conquest. 
Chaldean Ascendency, 3800 b.c. 
The Great Pyramids. 
II. — The Elamitic Ascendency, 2100 b.c. 

Egypt under the Twelfth Dynasty. 

The Pyramids and Lake of Inundations. 
III. — Egyptian Ascendency, 1450 b.c. 

Asiatic Conquest of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The 
Kossean Conquest of Babylon. Rise of the First As- 
syrian Empire. The Assyrian Conquest of Subari. 

Phcenicia. 
IV. — The Hittite Ascendency, 1250 b.c. 

Egypt under Rameses II. 
Assyria under Tugultininep I. 

Ruins of Thebes. 
The Seven Mouths of the Nile. 
v.— The World 1000 Years b.c. 

Greatness of Israel. First Assyrian Empire in its 
Decline. Assyrian Empire under Tiglath Pileser I. 

Greek Colonies of Asia Minor. 
The Tribes of Israel. 
JuDAH AND Israel, 925 b.c. 
VI.— The Assyrian Ascendency, about 660 b.c. 

Assyrian Empire, Shalmaneser II. 

The Heart of Assyria. 
VII. — Asia after the Fall of Assyria, 560 b.c. 

Greatness of Babylon. 

Surroundings of Babylon. 
Plan of Tyrus, 

GREEK HISTORY. 
VIII.— Hellas, 550 b.c. 

Ionian, Dorian, and ^olian Settlements. 

The Field of Troy. 
IX. — Hellas and Peloponnesus. 

Athens and the Bay of Salamis. 
Sparta. 
Thebes. 

Corinth and the Isthmus. 
X. — Eastern Part of Hellas and Peloponne- 
sus, 444 B.C. 
Athene. 
XI. — Persian Empire in its Greatest Extent, 
500 B.C. 
March of Cyrus Minor and Retreat of 

THE 10,000 UNDER XeNOPHON, 401 B.C. 

Granicus. 

Empire op Alexander the Great, 323 b.c. 



Plate 

XIL— Division of the Empire of Alexander 
the Great, 301 b.c. 

Western Asia after the Battle of Mag- 
nesia. 

Western Asia, 74 b.c. 

Western Asia, 63 b.c. 

ROMAN HISTORY. 

XIII. — Latium and its neighbors. 
Seven Hills of Rome. 
Neighborhood of Rome, 100 a.d. 
XIV. — Italy from the Samnite Wars to the 
Punic Wars, 343-263 b.c. 
Tarentum. 
XV. — Rome and Carthage at the beginning of 
THE First Punic War. 
Rome and Carthage at the end of the 

First Punic War. 
Rome and Carthage, at the beginning of 

the Second Punic War. 
Rome and Carthage at the end of the 
Second Punic War. 
XVI. — Hannibal's Route. 

Roman Dominion at the Close of the 

Punic Wars. 
Carthage. 
Syracuse. 

Roman Dominion a Century after the 
Punic Wars. 
XVII. — Cesar's Gaul, 50 b.c. 

Western Basin of the Mediterranean, 

100 A.D. 

XVIII. — Celtic Britain, at Time of Christ. 
Roman Britain, about 369 a.d. 
XIX. — Provinces of the Roman Empire with the 
Years of Conquest. 
Roman Empire in its Greatest Extent, 

116 A.D. 

During the Reign of Trojan. 
During the Reign of Augustus. 

Rome. Plan of the City. 
The Capitoline Hill and the Fora. 
XX. — Division of the Roman Empire by Diocle- 
tian. 
The Roman Empire in the Time of Valen- 

TINIAN I. 

Constantinople and the Bosporus. 
XXI.— Division of the Roman Empire, after 395 

A.D. 



LIST OF MAPS. 



Plate 
XXII.- 



XXIII.— 



XXIV. 



XXV 



XXVI. 



XXVII.— 



XXVIII. 



XXIX. 



XXX. 
XXXI. 



XXXII.— 

XXXTIL- 

XXXIV. 
XXXV. 



MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. 

■Europe and Western Asia at the be- 
ginning OF the Reign of Theodoric 
the ostro-goth. 

Empire of Clovis, 507 a.d. 

The Merovingian Kingdoms, 567-613 

A.D. 

■Britain, about 500 a.d. 
Northeastern Part of Kent, about 

450 A.D. 
Britain, after 577 a.d. 
Theatre of War BET^yEEN Britains 

and West Saxons, about 577 a.d. 
■Britain. E ad wine's Supremacy, 626 a. d. 
Battle-field near the River Idle. 
Britain. Supremacy of Oswin, 658 a.d. 
New Settlements in Britain, about 

666 A.D. 
■Britain, 795 a.d. 
Southwestern Britain, about 800 a.d. 

Religious Houses. 
Britain under Ecgberht, 827 a.d. 
London, about 800 a.d. 
Arabic Ascendency under Caliph 

Walid I. 
Damascus the Capital of the Ommaiad 

Caliphs. 
Empire of Charlemagne and its Di- 
visions. 

Byzantine Empire. Caliphate of Bagdad. 

Britain, 878 a.d. 

Scene of Defeat, Wanderings and Vic- 
tory OF Alfred the Great. 
Britain, 975 a.d. 
Realm of Cnut the Great, 1028-1G35 

A.D. 

-Empire of Otto the Great. Divided 

INTO Duchies, 962 a.d. 
Britain, 1064 a.d. 

The Great Duchies. The House of Godwin. 
The Episcopal Sees. 

Neighborhood of York. 

Battle of Stamford Bridge. 

Britain, 1066-1070 a.d. 

Results of Cami^aign of 1066. 
Results of Campaign of 1067. 
Results of Campaign of 1069. 

Eastern Part of Sussex. 

Battle of Senlac. 

France at the Accession of the Cape- 
tian Dynasty, 987 a.d. 

England and France, after the Bat- 
tle OF Tenchebr.vy, 1106 A.D. 

Scene of the Battle of the Standard. 

Europe during the Twelfth Century. 

Age of the Crusades. 

Possessions of the Plantagenels in 1160. 

Christian States of the East in 1142 

a.d. 
England and France in 1180 a.d. 
England and France in 1223 a.d. 
Empire of Frederick II. 



Plate 
XXXV. 

XXXVI.— 



XXXVII.- 
XXXVIII. • 



XXXIX 
XL. 

XLI. 



XLIL — 

XLIIL — 

XLIV.— 
XLV.— 

XLVI.— 
XL VII — 

XLVIIL — 

XLIX — 



LL — 



MODERN HISTORY. 

England and France during the First 
English Invasion of France. 

Eastern Europe in 1356. 

France at the Death of Charles V., 
1380. 

Empire of the Mongols. 

Empire of Timour, about 14'J0 A.D. 

France during the Second English In- 
A-ASiON, 1415-1453. 

Possessions of Philip the Good in 1435. 

Joan of Arcs Country, 

March op Henry V. 

Battle-fields of the War of the 

Roses, 1455-1485. 
Western Europe, about 1400. 
France at the Accession op Louis XL 
France at the Death of Louis XI. 
burgundian dominion of charles the 

Bold, 1477. 
Central Switzerland. 

Scene of the Swiss Struggle against Habsburg. 

The Rhine Countries, after 1543. 

The Netherlands as they came into possession of 
Philip II. The Four Rhenish Electorates. The 
Cleve Possessions. Lorraine and Bar. 

Germany Divided into Ten Circles. 

Western Europe during the Six- 
teenth Century. 

Northeastern Italy, showing the 
Franco Italian War. 

Eastern Europe during the Sixteenth 
Century. The Ottoman Ascendency. 

Europe in 1648. Peace of Westphalia. 

Scandinavian-Slavonic Wars under Charles X., 
XL, and XII. 

Southeastern Part of Lombardy. 

France. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
1668. 

France. Peace of Nimwegen, 1678. 

Europe in 1713. Peace of Utrecht. 

Boundaries of Russia, Poland, and 
Turkey in 1713. 

Battle-fields of the Netherlands. 

Europe in 1763. Peace of Huberts- 
burg. 

England, Scotland, and Ireland dur- 
ing THE Eighteenth Century. 

First Partition of Poland, 1772. 

Second Partition of Poland, 1793. 

Third Partition of Poland, 1795. 

Central and Northern Europe in 1795. 

Battle-fields of Northern Italy, 1794 
-1800. 

Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt and 
Syria, 1798-1801. 

Europe IN 1810. Age of Napoleon. 

Europe in 1816. Congress of Vienna. 

Theatre of the Crime.\n War, 1854- 
1855. 

Theatre of the Danish War, 1864. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



1887, 

1888, 
1888, 

1888, 



A.D. 1886, January 1. Upper Burmah annexed to the 
British Empire. 
1880, April 8. Home Rule Bill for Ireland intro- 
duced. 

1886, August 31. Revolution in Bulgaria. 

1887, March 8. Death of Henry Ward Beecher. 
1887, June 21. Celebration of Queen Victoria's 

Golden Jubilee. 

December 2. Carnot elected fourth Presi- 
dent of the French Republic. 

July 3. Pan-Anglican Conference, 

December. Panama Canal Scandal. 

December 20. Battle of Suakin — Arabians 
defeated. 

March 4. Inauguration of Benjamin Harri- 
son, twenty-third President of the United 
States. 
1889, March 6. Abdication of Milan, King of Ser- 
via. 

1889, November 15. Brazil proclaimed a Republic. 

1890, March 17. Bismarck resigns the Chancellor- 
ship. 

1890, December 15. Cession of Heligoland to Ger- 
many by Great Britain. 

1891, Chilian Revolution. 
1891, July. The French Fleet at Cronstadt. 

1891, October 6. Death of Charles Stuart Par- 
nell. 

1892. Behring Sea trouble settled by Arbitration, 

1892, January 20. Reconciliation between the 
Catholic Church and the French Republic. 

1893, Nansen's Arctic Expedition in the Fram. 
1893, March 4. Inauguration of Grover Cleveland 

(second term). 

1893, May 1 . Opening of the World's Columbian 
Exposition. 

1894, January 1. Opening of the Manchester Ship 
Canal. 

1894, June 24, Assassination of President Carnot 

(succeeded by Casimir Perier), 
1894, July. Beginning of the Chino-Japanese War. 

1894, September 17. Battle of Yalu River. 

1895, August. Atlanta Exposition. 
1895, January 17. Abdication of C. Perier, fifth 

President of the French Republic (suc- 
ceeded by Felix Faure). 

1895, February 20, Beginning of the Cuban Revo- 
lution, 

1895, July 3. Gladstone retires from political life. 

1895, July 4. Opening of the North Sea and Baltic 
Canal. 

1895, December 7. Annihilation of an Italian 
army in Abyssinia at Ambalagi. 

1895, December 17, President Cleveland's Vene- 
zuela Message. 

1895, December 29. Jameson's Raid into the Trans- 
vaal. 

1896, January 1. Defeat of Dr. Jameson at Kru- 
gersdorp. 

1896, March 1. Overwhelming defeat of the Ital- 
ians at Adowa (Abyssinia). 
1896, April 3. Soudan Campaign. 
1896, May 1. Assassination of the Shah of Persia. 

1896, September 9. Return of Dr. Nansen to 
Christiana. 

1897, February 8. The Union of Crete and Greece 
proclaimed at Halepa. 

1897, February 23. The Powers order Greece to 

withdraw from Crete 
1897, March 4. Inauguration of William McKinley, 

twenty-fifth President of the United States. 
1897, April 17. Turkey declares war against Greece. 
1897, April 27. Dedication of Grant's Tomb. 



A.D. 1897, May 1. Opening of the Tennessee Centennial 

Exposition. 
1897, May 15, Unveiling of Washington's Statue 

at Philadelphia. 
1897, June 22. Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. 
1897, August 8. Assassination of Canovas, Prime 

Minister of Spain. 
1897, August 25. Russo-French Alliance. 
1897, September 14, Ratification by the Hawaiian 

Senate of a treaty of annexation to the 

United States, 
1897, September 18. Treaty of Constantinople. 

Peace between Turkey and Greece. 
1897, November 15. Germany occupies Kiao-chau 

in China, 
1897, November 19, Great fire in the Cripplegate 

district of London. 

1897, November 28. Resignation of the Austrian 

Cabinet, 

1898, January 1 , Charter of " Greater New York " 

goes into force. 

1898, February 15, Blowing up of the United 
States Battle-ship Maine in Havana harbor. 

1898, April 22, President McKinley calls for a 
volunteer army, 

1898, April 25, Congress declares that war exists 
between the United States and Spain. 

1898, May 1. Dewey destroys the Spanish squad- 
ron in Manila harbor. 

1898, May 19. Death of W. E Gladstone (born 
December 29, 18()9). 

1898, May 21. England takes possession of Wei- 
Hai-Wei. 

1898, July 1-2. American Army, under Shafter, 
wins victories of El Caney and San Juan 
near Santiago de Cuba. 

1898, July 3. American fleet, under Sampson and 
Schley, completely destroys Spanish fleet 
at Santiago. 

1898, July 17. Santiago formally surrenders to 
General Shafter, and the Stars and Stripes 
are hoisted over the city. 

1898, July 25, General Miles, with an American 
army, lands in Porto Rico. 

1898, August 12, Peace protocol signed by United 
States and Spain. 

1898, September 2. General Kitchener s great vic- 
tory over the Dervishes at Omdurman, 
near Kartoum, 

1898, September 10. Elizabeth, Empress of Aus- 
tria, assassinated by an anarchist at Ge- 
neva. 

1898, December 10* Treaty of peace between the 

United States and Spain signed at Paris. 

1899, February 1, The American flag was raised 

at Guam, 

1899, February 16. President Faure of France 
died suddenly. 

1899, February 18. M. Emile Loubet elected Presi- 
dent of France. 

1899, May 18. Universal Peace Conference con- 
vened at The Hague. 

1899, July 24. Reciprocity Treaty between United 
States and France signed. 

1899 July 29, Final sitting of Peace Conference 
at The Hague. 

1899, October 10. The Transvaal sent ultimatum 
to Great Britain ; reply not being satis- 
factory the Boers (Oct. 12th) began the 
war by invading Natal. 

1899, December 11, The President directed Gen- 
eral Otis to open the ports of the Philip- 
pines to commerce. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



A.D. 



1900, 

1900, 
190O, 
1900, 

1900, 
1900, 
1900, 
1900, 
1900, 
1900, 
1900, 

1900, 

1900, 

1900, 



November 34. News received by War De- 
partment that chief officers of the Filipino 
Goverment were captured, the insurgents 
scattered, and Aguinaldo a fugitive pur- 
sued toward the mountains. 

January 10. Contract awarded for construc- 
tion of the New York City Rapid Transit 
Tunnel. 

February 27. The Boer General Cronje and 
his army capitulated to Lord Roberts. 

April 14. The Paris International Exposition 
opened. 

April 23. The Protestant Ecumenical Mis- 
sionary Conference began its sessions at 
Carnegie Hall, New York City. 

June 5. Pretoria surrendered to Lord Rob- 
erts. 

June 17. Taku forts in China captured by 
the allies. 

June 19. First attack on the Legations at 
Peking by the Chinese. 

Julyl3-14. The allies took Tientsin, China, 
by storm. 

July 30. King Humbert, of Italy, assas- 
sinated. 

September 15. Election in Cuba of dele- 
gates to a Constitutional Convention. 

November 12. The Paris Exposition closed ; 
fifty million visitors had passed through 
the gates. 

November 22. President Kruger, of the 
South African Republic, landed at Mar- 
seilles, and began journey to Paris. 

November 30. Lord Roberts relinquished 
command of British troops in South Africa 
to Lord Kitchener. 

December 7. Tension between Portugal and 
the Netherlands over South African affairs 
caused withdrawal of their respective 
ministers. 



A.D. 1901, January 22, Queen Victoria died at Osborne 

House, Isle of Wight. 
1901, January 24. Edward VII. proclaimed King 

of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor 

of India. 
1901, February 7. Queen Wilhelmina, of Holland, 

was married to Duke Henry of Mecklen- 

burg-Schwerin. 
1901, March 4. William McKinley was inaugurated 

as President of the United States for a 

second term. 
1901, March 13. Ex-President Benjamin Harrison 

died at his home, Indianapolis, Ind. 
1901, March 23. Aguinaldo, leader of the Fili- 

pino insurrection, was captured by General 

Funston. 
1901, May 1. The Pan-American Exposition at 

Buffalo, N. Y., was formally opened. 
1901, July 4. Civil Government was substituted 

for Military Rule in the Philippines. 
1901, August 5. The Dowager Empress Frederick 

of Germany died. 
1901, September 6. President McKinley was shot 

twice by an assassin while holding a public 

reception in the Temple of Music at the 

Pan American Exposition. 
1901, September 14. President McKinley died 

from his wounds at the home of John G. 

Milbu^n at Buffalo. 
1901, September 14. Vice-President Roosevelt 

took the oath of office as President of the 

United States. 
1901, November 7. Li Hung Chang died. 

1901, November 8. The Isthmian Canal Treaty 

was signed by Secretary Hay and Lord 
Pauncefote. 

1902, May 20. Republic of Cuba inaugurated with 

Tomas Estrada Palma as President. 

1902, May 31. Terms of surrender signed by Boer 
representatives, ending South African War. 

1902, July 4. Civil government extended to all 
parts of the Philippines and a general am- 
nesty proclaimed. 



XX 



INTRODUCTION 



History knows nothing of her own infancy. Everywhere man has preceded history. 
The beginning of the development of the human race lies beyond the sphere of memory, 
and so also do the first steps in that development. The early stages of culture are uncon- 
scious and unobservant; they are therefore without the conditions which make remem- 
brance possible. The results of man's early activity were preserved in tradition only. The 
collective stock of slowly acquired handicrafts flitted spirit-like from father to son. It grew 
out of man's effort to get enough to eat and get protection against cold and heat — just as 
language with all its uses, grew out of man's effort to communicate with his fellows. 

There was an incessant movement toward attempts at mutual understanding, which 
met at first with occasional and eventually with more frequent and complete success. How 
high a state of cultivation must this language have reached, before it was able to keep a 
record of what had gone before ! 

How many things must man have learned before he could master the art of writing, 
that slowly developing art, which can be acquired only by ages of gradual experiment! 
And before a history could be written man must have risen from out a mere collection of 
tribes to a nation, with a national existence to record, and with rules for the guidance of 
its political and social life. 

Society only reaches historical consciousness when it begins to produce monuments to 
bear witness to posterity of what is occurring. Monuments form the dial-plate of history. 
Until they exist, the present alone belongs to a nation, not the past — it exists without a 
history. The history of antiquity is the description of the forms of culture first attained 
by the human race. 

The oldest realms of which tradition and monuments preserve any information passed 
imobserved through the earliest stages of culture. Both tradition and the earliest monu- 
ments present them at the dawn of their history as already in the possession of a many- 
sided and highly-developed civilization. In what way these oldest states arrived at their 
possession we can only deduce from the nature of the regions where those civilizations 
arose, from the physical character of the nations which developed them, and from their 
languages. 

It seems that the oldest realm grew up on that quarter of the globe which seems least 
favorable to the development of mankind. It was confined to the narrow strip of mud, 
which lines both banks of the river Nile, and is bounded by low hills of limestone or the 
shifting sands of the desert. Amid these unfavorable circumstances the primeval civiliza- 
tion of Egypt was developed. It forms the conclusion of an introductory chapter of human 
history, a period of unmeasured duration, whose most precious legacy consists of its monu- 
ments. It is in this that exists the claim of priority of the history of Egypt above all other 
histories. History begins with Egypt. 

xxi 



THE HISTORY OF THE EAST TILL THE FOUNDATION OF 

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 



EGYPT UNTIL THE EXPULSION OF THE HYKSOS. 



SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 

Hieroglyphics. — We owe our knowledge of 
Ancient Egypt to the monumental inscriptions, 
and to the remains of the ancient literature of 
the country. 

The discovery of the Roseita j-/^^^* containing 
identical inscriptions in hieroglyphics, demotic, 
and Greek, furnished Fr. ChampoUion, in 
1822, the key to the sense of the monumental 
inscriptions. His discovery of the hiero- 
glyphic alphabet gave us a clew to the whole 
of the ancient Egyptian literature. Thanks 
to this discovery, Egyptian scholars are now 
able to translate a hieroglyphic inscription 
with ahnost as great philological accuracy as 
the work of a Greek or Latin author. 

Egyptian writing was at once alphabetic, 
ideographic, and syllabic. The oldest written 
monuments we possess exhibit it already 
formed and complete, showing us the three 
distinct elements blended into one harmonious 
whole. 

The great bulk of the hieroglyphics in all 
inscriptions are phonetic, standing generally 
for letters (sometimes for syllables). 

The Egyptians resolved speech into its ele- 
ments, and expressed these elements by signs 
which had the exact force of letters. But, in- 
stead of confining themselves to one sign or 
object to represent a certain sound, they, for 
the most part, adopted several signs to express 
each elementary sound. 

Iconographic signs, designating the object 
represented, were used in two ways : either 
they stood alone to represent the object in- 
tended, or they followed the name of the ob- 
ject, written phonetically ; as we might write 

*The French engineer Bussard, while digging entrench- 
ments near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile (1799), unearthed 
a block of black basalt bearing on one face a trilingual in- 
scription. It proved to be a decree made by the priests, in- 
creasing the divine honors granted to Ptolemy V. (196 B.C.), 
ordering that this command should be engraved in hiero- 
glyphic, demotic, and Greek, and placed la all the chief 
temples. 



the word horse and place after it the figure of 
that animal. 

The hieroglyphics are sometimes written in 
column, one over another, but generally in 
line, when they are read, from left to right, or 
from right to left, according to the direction 
in which the characters face. 

The oldest inscriptions are almost entirely 
written in phonetic signs. Iconographic and 
syllabic signs were of later introduction. 

Egyptian writing is of three distinct kinds, 
which are known respectively by the Greek 
names of : Hieroglyphic {^sacred sculpture)^ 
Hieratic {priestly)^ and Demotic {popular\ or 
Enchoreal {native). The hieroglyphic is that 
of almost all monuments, and is also found 
occasionally in manuscripts. The hieratic and 
the demotic occur with extreme rarity upon 
monuments, but are employed in the papyrus 
rolls or books of the Egyptians. Both of them 
are cursive forms of the hieroglyphics. 

Monuments and Authors. — Historical lit- 
erature is rare, if we except such documents 
as the Harris papyrus, which gives the history 
of Ramses III. For the annals of the kings 
we must rather look to the walls of the tem- 
ples and the tombs. The Epic of Pentaur, 
poet-laureate of Ramses II., was found on 
many a temple wall. 

In several temples were kept historical 
records. The history of the native historian 
Manetho, written in Greek about 260 B.C., 
was based upon them. It now exists only in 
fragments and in the epitomes of Eusebius 
and Africanus. 

The earliest, and in some respects the best, 
Greek authority is Herodotus, who makes us 
acquainted with the popular stories current 
among the Greek traders in Egypt during the 
fifth century B.C. Diodorus (30 B.C.) simply 
copies Herodotus, adding some worthless ma- 
terial to it. 

The true foundation for the critical study of 
Egyptian history was laid by Lepsius, in 1846^ 



EGYPT : THE OLD EMPIKE OF MEMPHIS. 



when he began the publication of his stupen- 
dous work, '* Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und 
Aethiopien." 

Chronology. — The chronological element 
in the Early Egyptian History is in a state of 
almost hopeless obscurity, the estimates of the 
great Egyptologers differing more than 3,000 
years. The few dates given in this sketch are 
generally accepted by the greater part of the 
Egyptologers. 

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE. 

The Egyptians and their Neighbors. — 

Egypt is that part of the Nile valley which 
is north of the last cataract. In prehistoric 
times it was occupied by immigrants from 
Asia, who found the country settled by an ab- 
original race, which gradually absorbed the 
new-comers. Out of different small states 
were formed two kingdoms : Upper Egypt, or 
the South-land, ta-res ; and Lower Egypt, or 
the North-land, ta-meh, including, besides the 
Delta, the country around Memphis. The in- 
habitants of the Libyan desert and of the 
Oases were called by the Egyptians Temchu. 
On the monuments they are always represent- 
ed as white people, in contradistinction to the 
red Egyptians. Subdivisions of these Temchu 
were : the Tehenu in the lands bordering on 
the Delta, and in the Cyrenaica the Rebu or 
Lebu, whence the Greek name for all the 
Temchu, Libyans. 

Religion. — The divinities of Egypt are pre- 
eminently Gods of light. They are asso- 
ciated with the sun. Each great city had its 
own deities, which were united into an hier- 
archy, at the head of which stood a form of 
the Sun-god, worshipped as Ptah at Memphis, 
Amun-Ra at Thebes, Tum at Heliopolis, etc. 
And since the Sun rises as the youthful Horos, 
shines in his full strength at mid-day as Ra, 
and sets in the evening as Tum, the Christian 
doctrine of the Trinity found its counterpart 
in Egyptian religion from the dawn of the 
historical period. By the side of the Sun-god 
stood Isis, the dawn, the mother, sister, wife, 
and double of the Sun-god himself. Osiris 
became the most famous Sun-god, and his 
worship spread gradually over the whole land. 
Older even than the Sun-wors|;iip was the wor- 
ship of animals, dedicated to the different 
forms of the Sun-god. They were originally 
the sacred animals of the clans which first 
settled in these localities. 

Believing that the soul survives death, the 
Egyptians linked its weal with the preserva- 
tion of the body, from which they could not 
conceive its destiny to be wholly dissevered. 
Thus arose the universal custom of embalm- 



ing. The tombs are the most ancient struct- 
ures. They contained always a room for 
sacred services to the dead. 



THE OLD EMPIRE OF MEMPHIS. 

The First Dynasties. — The North and 
South land were finally united into one mon- 
archy by Menes (about 3200 B.C.), whose de- 
scendants ruled over Egypt for more than five 
hundred years. They formed the ist and 2d 
dynasties, and had succeeded in welding Egypt 
together. With the 3d dynasty the inscrip- 
tions begin. To it belongs Snefru (about 
2800 B.C.), whose inscriptions in the Wady 
Magharah tell us that the turquoise mines of 
Sinai were worked for his benefit, and guarded 
by Egyptian soldiers. The lofty pyramid of 
Meidoom is his tomb, close to which are the 
sepulchres of his princes and officials, still 
brilliant with colored mosaic work of pictures 
and hieroglyphics. 

The Pyramid Kings. — During the 4th 
dynasty (about 2700 B.C.) the greater part 
of the pyramid-tombs were erected in the 
necropolis of Memphis, on the edge of the 
Western desert. Traces and remains of more 
than seventy still exist. The largest, built by 
Khuft/, or Cheops, was originally 480 feet high 
and still measures 450 feet. The second pyra- 
mid, which was built by Khafra^ measured 
453 feet (at present 450 feet). The third one, 
frequently called the Red Pyramid, was built 
by Menkaura (Mycerinus). It is still 204 feet 
in height (formerly 217 feet). The sacred 
guardian of the field of the pyramids is the 
great Sphinx, hewn from the rocks, to spare, 
as a Greek inscription says, each spot of cul- 
tivable land. During the 5th dynasty we pass 
to the age of Ti, whose tomb, with its delicately 
sculptured walls of alabaster, is among the 
choicest of Egyptian monuments. The most 
illustrious monarch of the 6th dynasty was 
Merira Pepi I. (about 2530 B.C.), who fought 
against the Semites of Asia. 

Character of the Old Empire.— With the 
close of the 6th dynasty ends the Old Em- 
pire of Memphis, the exact boundaries of 
which are unknown. All that can be proved 
is that these ancient sovereigns possessed the 
tract about Memphis, and the line of country 
connecting that tract with the mines of the 
Sinaitic peninsula. There are no memorials 
of them in the Delta, none in Upper Egypt. 
It is the glory of this period that it carried its 
own proper style of architecture to absolute 
and unsurpassable perfection. Not only wood, 
but granite and other hard stones were carved 
into shape by the efforts of the chisel. The 
use of monochrome colors, principally red. 



J 



3800 B.C. 



Plate L 



CHALDAEAN ASCENDENCY 
IN AVESTERN ASIA. 



The Empire of Sargon..-. 
The beginnings of Egypt - 




Borsi ppa 



ABubian 



Copyright, 1886, by Townsend MacCoun. 



Strullicrs, Servoss & Co.. Eogr's and Pi's, N. Y. 



EGYPT : THE OLD EMPIRE OF THEBES. 



black; blue, and yellow, prevailed. The do- 
mesticated animals were not so numerous as 
at a subsequent period. The Egyptian of the 
Old Empire had dogs and apes for his com- 
panions, but not yet cats. For riding he had 
only asses, not yet horses. 

THE OLD EMPIRE OF THEBES. 

Thebes. — From the 7th to the nth dy- 
nasty the history of Egypt is a blank. At the 
end of this long period, variously estimated at 
from 166 to 740 years, we find the seat of 
power transferred from Memphis to Thebes. 
Just north of the gorge of the Gebelein the 
Nile enters upon a broad plain spreading itself 
out on both banks of the stream. Here there 
open out on either side lines of route offering 
great advantages for trade, on the one hand 
with the lesser Oasis, and so with the tribes "of 
the African interior ; on the other with the 
western coast of the Red Sea and the spice 
region of the opposite shore. In this favored 
position had grown up, on the eastern river 
bank, a flourishing town. Its Egyptian name 
was Us, the sacred quarter on the west banks 
of the Nile being T-Ape, ^Uhe /!<?^^," whence 
the Greek Thebai, our Thebes. It is called 
NiA in the Assyrian inscriptions, and in the 
Bible No-Amun (the City of Amun) from the 
popular Egyptian name Nu, ^^ the city.'' 

The Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties. 
— Originally the Theban kings were noth- 
ing but vassal princes. Entef IV. threw 
off the supremacy of the sovereigns in the 
North, assumes the title of monarch of the 
South-land and the North-land, and founds the 
nth dynasty. The era of Theban greatness, 
however, begins with Amen-em-hat I. (about 
2130 B.C.), the founder of the 12th dynasty. 
We find ourselves now in an Egypt quite 
different from that of the 6th dynasty. The 
southern boundary has been pushed thirty- 
five miles beyond the second cataract. The 
obelisk which marks the site of On (Heliopolis 
near Cairo), raised (2100 b.c.) by Usurtasen I., 



is the oldest one we know of. These obelisks, 
cut from single blocks of stone (monoliths), 
characterize the Old Empire of Thebes, just as 
the pyramids characterized the Old Empire 
of Memphis. The "Lake of Inundations" 
(Meri, Moeris, Arsinoe), dug by Amen-em-hat 
III., on the western bank of the Nile, formed 
a large reservoir for regulating the river's 
water-supply. To the south of Meri he erected 
the so-called Labyrinth, a large palace for 
ceremonial acts. 

Character of the Old Empire of Thebes. 
— The Egyptian empire appeared at this time 
as the centre of civilization, and of all prog- 
ress in intellect, in art, and in trade. Intel- 
lectual life developed itself fully. They strove 
after moral ennoblement ; schools were estab- 
lished in the principal towns. 

The territory of the entire country was di- 
vided into districts, and engraved stones, fixed 
as limits, separated neighboring properties. 

The kings continued to build pyramids as 
tombs, and the court officers prepared their 
graves in the deepest pits in the mountains* 
and placed halls of sacrifice over them in 
which all the art and splendor of the sculptors 
and painters were developed. On their walls 
the different branches of human industry were 
represented, for the information of future gen- 
erations. They worked, with tools unknown 
to us, the precious quarries which existed in 
the Valley of Hamamat ; they drew the rose 
and the black granite from the " red moun- 
tain " near Assouan ; they brought back the 
gold from Nubia, and worked the' mineral 
riches of the Sinaitic peninsula, to gain pre- 
cious turquoises and useful copper. During 
the rule of the 12th dynasty began that im- 
migration of Semites in the Delta which 
eventually gave it the name of Caphtor (Keft- 
ur, Greater Phoenicia). They succeeded not 
only in making the Delta their own, but even 
in conquering the whole country, and under 
the name of Hyksos, ruling it for five hun- 
dred and eleven years. Zoan or Tanis was 
made their capital. 



OLD BABYLONIA. 



SOURCES OF OLD BABYLONIAN HISTORY. 

Cuneiform Inscriptions. — The tri-lingual 
Behistun Inscription* furnished the key to the 

*This inscription was carved by order of the Persian 
King Darius Hystaspes (519 B.C.) on the precipitous side of 
the sacred rock of Behistun {Bagistana^ "place of the 
Gods "), where the road from Babylon to Egbatana crosses 
the Zagros Mountains. 



deciphering of the Cuneiform (wedge-shaped) 
inscriptions, as did the Rosetta Stone to the 
Hieroglyphic. The inscription is in three 
languages — Persian, Elamitic, and Assyrian. 
The Persian text is expressed in very simple 
syllabic signs, which have been deciphered 
since 1836 by Lassen and Burnouf. The Ela- 
mitic and Syrian texts are written in very com- 



3 



SOURCES OF OLD BABYLONIAN" HISTORY 



plicated characters. They have, nevertheless, 
been deciphered since 1849, by F. de Saulcy, 
Sir Henry Rawlinson, and others. 

The earliest form of this writing, invented 
by the Akkadians and Sumerians before they 
left their original liome in Elam, was, like the 
hieroglypliics, a collection of rude pictures, 
with this peculiarity that they were all straight- 
lined and angular and arranged in vertical 
columns. After their settlement on the lower 
Euphrates they adopted clay as a writing 
material. On tiny, pillow-shaped clay tablets, 
from one to five inches long, they traced the 
outline of the original picture, in a series of 
distinct, wedge-like impressions made by the 
square or triangular point of a small bronze 
tool. The primitive pictures thus became 
cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters. At 
the same time they altered the arrangement of 
the characters, the vertical lines becoming 
horizontal ones, and running from left to right, 
by which process the original pictures were 
laid on their sides. 

Although it offers many points of analogy 
with the Egyptian hieroglyphics, it differs in 
this that pure consonants are entirely wanting. 
Its more simple elements are signs for voivels, 
and for syllables containing vowel and consonant. 
They have signs for a^ pa, and at, but none for 
/ or /. If they wanted to write pat they had to 
use the form pa-at. They expressed nouns 
and verbs originally, ideographically. This 
cuneiform system has been adopted with more 
or less modifications by many nations. First 
of all by the Semitic invaders of Akkad and 
Sumer (the Chaldaeans), later by the Assyrians 
and Elamites, and at length by the Armenians. 
The simple characters of the Persian cunei- 
form inscriptions have been developed from it 
by the most radical modifications. 

Monuments and Authors. — Among the 
cuneiform inscriptions we find far more his- 
torical material than among the Egyptian 
hieroglyphics. The inscriptions on the walls 
of temples and palaces tell us of the deeds of 
the kings and the buildings they erected. 
Hollow terra-cotta cylinders, from eighteen 
to thirty-six inches high, are inscribed with 
the annals of the realm. Besides fragments 
of the so-called ^^ synchronistical table," which 
gives us an insight in the political relations 
between Babylon and Assyria, we possess 
copies of treaties, of commercial transactions, 
of petitions to the king, of royal proclama- 
tions, and of despatches from generals in the 
field. 

But it relates nearly all to Assyria. The 
Babylonian documents have nearly all per- 
ished. But before they had disappeared they 
were read and excerpted by Berosus, who did 



the same for Babylonia that Manetho did for 
Egypt. He was a priest of the temple of Bel, 
at Babylon, in the times of Alexander the 
Great. Recent discoveries have abundantly 
established his trustworthiness. But, unfor- 
tunately, his works are only known to us 
through quotations at second and third hand. 
The notices of Herodotus, of ancient Baby- 
lonian history, are scanty and of doubtful 
value. Ctesias, a Greek physician, who lived 
about a century after Herodotus (about 350 
B.C.), at the court of Artaxerxes II., compiled 
a Persian history based upon Persian annals. 
It consists, for the most part, of mere legend- 
ary tales and rationalized myths. 

Chronology. — The Chronology of Old Bab- 
ylonia is in much better shape than the Egyp- 
tian Chronology. They counted by the years 
of the king, or stated that anything had hap- 
pened so many years after a particular re- 
markable event, for instance : this happened in 
the sixth year after the taking of Nisin by King 
Rimsin. The valuable Canon of Ptolemy, 
preserved in the Almagest, gives the chronol- 
ogy of Babylon from 747 b.c. downward. 

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE. 

The twin-rivers, which water the depression 
between the Syrian and Iranian plateaus, 
rise, at no great distance from each other, 
on the Armenian Mountains ; the Euphrates 
to the north, the Tigris to the south. After 
leaving the mountains both rivers enter a 
lofty steppe which gradually becomes more 
level, but also more sterile. 

At the place where the two rivers approach 
each other most nearly (about four hundred 
miles from their present mouth) there com- 
mences a rich plain which consists entirely 
of the soil deposited by the rivers in a long, 
narrow arm of the sea. At the dawn of his- 
tory the greater part of this arm had been 
filled up as far as 31 northern latitude. The 
plain extends, at present, one degree farther 
south. This plain w^as, in very early times, 
one of the most productive and thickly popu- 
lated countries. Here was the centre and 
starting-point of that civilization which after- 
ward spread throughout Western Asia. It 
was inhabited by several cognate tribes, en- 
tirely unconnected with the nations of West- 
ern Asia. They were, in very early times, ab- 
sorbed by the surrounding nations. 

To the east of the Tigris were the warlike 
tribes of the Kossaeans (Kassu). To the south 
of the Kossaeans was the country of Elam 
(Ansan in the native tongue), wMth the rivers 
Choaspes and Eulaeus. Susan (Susa) was its 
capital. To the west of Hie Euphrates were 



OLD BABYLONIAN HISTORY. 



the Semitic tribes of the Arabian desert. 
Originally in Maka?t, the southern part of the 
plain, we find the Sumerians {Su?ner), with the 
capital Ur on the Euphrates, and in Melucha, 
the northern part, we find the Akkadians, so 
called after their capital, Akkad {Agade). 

OLD BABYLONIAN HISTORY. 

The Semitic Invasion. — Among this prim- 
itive population settled Semitic tribes, the 
Casdim or " conquerors " of the Bible. When 
they first came in contact with the Akkadians 
these Semites were mere nomads, wanting 
even the first elements of culture. These, 
however, they soon acquired from their neigh- 
bors, and quickly made themselves indispens- 
able to the agricultural Akkadians. In the 
course of time they formed a commercial 
aristocracy which finally usurped the supreme 
power. The most brilliant representative of 
this Semitic Dynasty was Sargon L (about 
3800 B.C.), whose patronage of learning caused 
the library of Agade (Sippara) to become very 
famous. He made also several campaigns 
against Syria and Palestine, and it was to them 
that the influence of Babylonian culture upon 
the populations of the eastern basin of the 
Mediterranean must first be traced. They bor- 
rowed the Babylonian system of weights and 
measures, its division of the solar year, and 
its style of architecture. Its brick-built pal- 
aces, colossal remains of which are still extant, 
were unsurpassed in size and strength. 

The Elamitic Conquest. — About 2300 b.c. 
both Akkad and Sumer were conquered by 
the Elamites. We learn from cuneiform in- 
scriptions that Kudurmabiik had conquered mat 
Martu (the West-land, />., Syria). Another 
king of the dynasty, Chedor-laomer, extended 
his empire to the Western Sea and ruled for 
12 years in Palestine after having conquered 
the Hittites, who held their own, however, in 
the valley of the Orontes and in Nahartna, i.e., 
the country on both sides of the Upper Eu- 
phrates. 

These Hittites, whose features and physical 
type were those of a Northern people, had 
originally come from the Caucasus. Their 
headquarters were, about 2300 e.g., in Cappa- 
docia, bounded on the west by the Halys and 
on the south by the Cilicians. Their eastern 
boundary was formed by the river Euphrates. 

Beginnings of Assyria. — East of the Eu- 
phrates and north of the Tigris were the 
Na'iri lands (after, 500 B.C., Armenia), to the 



south of which was Assyria, which took its 
name from the primitive capital of A-sur (or 
A-u-sar " Waterbank," later Assur), which stood 
on the right bank of the Tigris midway be- 
tween the Greater and Lesser Zab. It became 
the chief place for the worship of the God 
Assur, after whom the country was called 
Assyria. Sixty miles N. E. of Assur, on the 
eastern bank of the Tigris, was an old settle- 
ment called " fish-town," Ninua (Nineveh), 
whither (about 1300 b.c.) Shalmaneser I. re- 
moved his residence. Henceforward Nineveh 
remained the chief city of the Assyrian Empire. 
South of Assyria was Kossaea. 

The Kossaean Conquest. — About 1500 
B.C. Kossaean hordes conquered Akkad. The 
first Kossaean king of Babylon was Aguka- 
krime, who calls himself, in a large inscrip- 
tion, ''King of Kassu, Akkad, Babel, etc., 
and king of the mighty Guti." The Guti 
were a powerful tribe who lived between the 
Lesser Zab and the Gyndes. The Kossaeans 
ruled nearly 250 years over Akkad, which they 
called Kardunias. They resided in Babylon, 
took the titles of the ancient Babylonian kings, 
and worshipped the Babylonian gods. Sumer 
remained independent. 

During this revival of the power and influ- 
ence of Babylon under the Kossaean dynasty 
the kingdom of Assyria first began to extend 
itself, partly perhaps, in consequence of the 
Asiatic conquests of the Egyptian monarchs 
of the 1 8th dynasty, partly also in consequence 
of a close alliance between the Assyrians and 
the Kossaeans. About 1400 b.c. Burnaburias, 
King of Kardunias, married the daughter of 
Assuruballit, the King of Assyria. From this 
marriage sprung Karachardas and Kurigalzu. 
When Karachardas succeeded his father as 
King of Kardunias he was soon murdered by 
the party opposed to Assyrian influence. But 
the usurper Nazibugas was overthrown by 
Assuruballit, who placed the younger brother, 
Kurigalzu, heir of Assyria, on the throne of 
Kardunias. 

This event may be considered the turning 
point in the history of the kingdoms of the 
Mesopotamian Valley. Assyria henceforth 
takes the place held by the worn-out Baby- 
lonian monarchy and plays the chief part in 
the affairs of Western Asia until the day of its 
final fall. 

The same Assuruballit, who regulated the 
affairs of Babylonia, conquered the valley of 
the Chaboras and extended the western boun- 
dary of Assyria beyond the old town of Harran, 



2100 B.C. 



Plate IL 



THE 

ELAmTIC ASCENDENCY 

us WESTERN ASIA. 

ABOUT 2.100 B.C. 

The Empire of Chedor-ZamneT.....^^ZIZ 



J^gyfl under the i2iK Di/natly. 

Iluruglyjihic namet Cheta 

Cuneiform " Arbail 

Biblical " ..Hittites 

Classical «• , Telusium 

Modern << ..JIarran 

Pliodiician townt ^-d''S!'l±"L 




Copyrigbt J886,.bj TeKnaeud JUcCoua. 



Slmllieis, S«rvoss Sc Co., £d 



THE EGYPTIAN ASCENDENCY IN SYRIA. 



SOURCES OF SYRIAN HISTORY. 

The old Aramaean (Syrian) literature is en- 
tirely lost. A very few remnants of Phoeni- 
cian literature have been preserved in Greek 
translations (fragments of the Tyrian annals 
of Menander and Dios). 

We are confined to the historical books of 
the Old Testament, the Assyrian records, and 
some scanty notices in the Egyptian inscrip- 
tions. 

THE NEW EGYPTIAN EMPIRE. 

The i8th Dynasty (begins 1530 b.c). — The 
expulsion of the Hyksos was effected by 
Aahmes I., who became the founder of the i8th 
dynasty. It was accomplished, however, not 
all at once, but gradually. From this event 
Egypt enters on a new stage in its career. It 
becomes a military, an aggressive, and a con- 
quering state. A martial spirit is evoked. 
Wars for plunder and conquest ensue. 

The injuries Egypt had endured at the 
hands of Asia were avenged upon Asia itself, 
and the boundaries of the Egyptian Empire 
were laid on the banks of the Euphrates. 

With the second successor of Aahmes, 
Thothmes I., begins a long line of great con- 
querors. In the South he added Kush to 
Egypt and in the Northeast he carried his arms 
as far as Naharina (the country on both sides 
of the Upper Euphrates). 

But his exploits were surpassed by those of 
his second son Thothmes III. (1480-1430 B.C.), 
under whom Egypt became the arbiter of the 
destinies of the ancient civilized world. After 
having conquered the combined Canaanite 
forces under the Hittite King of Kadesh, at 
Megiddo, he built a fortress at the foot of 
Mount Lebanon, near Aradus, to secure his 
new conquests. But it needed fourteen cam- 
paigns more before he could consider himself 
the Lord paramount of Syria as far as the 
Amanus. Now year by year tribute and taxes 
of every kind flowed regularly into the Egyp- 
tian treasury from the towns of Palestine and 
Phoenicia, from Cyprus and from the Hittites. 
Egypt was covered with monuments, became 
Ihe centre of trade and intercourse and Thebes 
took rank as the capital of the world. 

There the great temple of Amnion became 
the special object of Thothmes' fostering care. 
It^ central sanctuary, which Usurtasen I. had 
built in common stone, was replaced by the 
present granite edifice. He then built in the 
rear of the old temple a magnificent hall in 



the form of an oblong square, 143 X 65 feet. 
It was roofed in with slabs of solid stone ; two 
rows of circular pillars thirty feet in height 
supported the central part, while on each side 
of the pillars was a row of square piers, still 
further extending the width of the chamber 
and breaking it up into five long vistas. On 
three sides of this hall he erected chambers 
and corridors, one of the former situated 
toward the south containing, what is now" 
called, the " Great Tablet of Kai-naky On this 
tablet are exhibited, in a consecutive series as 
ancestors of the reigning Pharao, sixty kings, 
commencing with Snefru. Thothmes III. 
represents himself as making offerings to 
them, thereby acknowledging at once their 
ancestral relation to himself and their divin- 

To him, therefore, belongs the credit of 
being the first, so far as we know, to attempt 
the task of arranging the old kings in some- 
thing like chronological order. 

He enclosed also the temple of the Sun at 
Anu (Heliopolis) and erected the obelisks be- 
longing to the same building, which the irony 
of fate has now removed to Italy, England, and 
America. Two of the obelisks which Thothmes 
III. erected at Anu were about nineteen cen- 
turies ago transferred by Augustus to Alexan- 
dria, where they remained till recently, and 
were known as Cleopatra's needles. At present 
one ornaments the Thames Embankment in 
London, while the other adds to the charms of 
New York's Central Park. 

Besides distinguishing himself as a warrior, 
builder, and genealogist, Thothmes III. was 
one of the greatest naturalists. He established 
a botanical and zoological garden, stocked 
with the curious plants and animals he had 
brought back with him from his numerous 
campaigns. Under his immediate successors 
(Amenhotep II., Thothmes IV., and Amenho- 
tep III.) the empire founded by him was suc- 
cessfully maintained, but under the next king, 
Amenhotep IV., the decline commenced. For, 
although his generals continued to gain vic- 
tories over Sasu and Rutenu, the country was 
fermenting with the suppressed bitterness of 
religious hatred. For he and his house had 
ceased to worship Amun-Ra and the state-gods 
of Thebes, giving only divine honors to the 
one God of Light. Him he worshipped under 
the symbol of the Solar Disk (Aten) and 
changed his own name to Khu-en-Aten, which 
means "The Splendor of the Solar Disk." 

This raised open war between him and the 



1450 B.C. 



Plate IIT. 




The Asiatic Conquests of the 18th Dynasty. The Kossaean Con- 
quest of Babylonia. The rise of the first Assyrian Empire. 
The Assyrian Conquest of Subari, i. e. the West. The 
Phoenicians in the £. Basin of the Mediterranean. 



Hieroglyphic name) Asebi 

Cuneiform " Ninua 

Biblical " Uittites 

Classical " Damascus 

Mqdern " JIaleb 

Phoenician towns.,. Sidon 



Assyria. 



Copyright, 1886, bj Townsend MuCoun. 



Strulher«, Serrow 4 Co., Engr!»,»nd Pr^., N.Yi 



THE HITTITE ASCENDENCY. 



priests, and forced him to leave Thebes, the 
City of Amun-Ra. 

He now commenced to build a new capital, 
Khu-aten, far from Memphis and Thebes, at 
a place in the centre of Egypt which at this 
day bears the name of Tell-el-Amarna. It 
was richly adorned with monuments, traces of 
which, in spite of their later wholesale de- 
struction, are clearly to be perceived in the 
heaps of debris. Here he died, surrounded by 
his relations and converts to the new doctrines, 
leaving seven daughters, but no son. He was 
succeeded by two of his sons-in-law, and then 
by his master of the house Ai, who had mar- 
ried the foster-mother of Khu-en-Aten. Ai 
returned to the orthodox state religion. 

After his death there were secession trou- 
bles, attended with much anarchy. Order 
was restored by Hor-em-hib, who had married 
the sister-in-law of Khu-en-Aten. Kush, which 
had shaken off the Egyptian dominion, was 
reconquered by Hor-em-hib, with whom the 
i8th dynasty came to an end. 

The igth Dynasty. — Ramses I. was the 
founder of the 19th Egyptian Dynasty. His 
short reign of six years was chiefly signalized 
by the beginning of the long struggle with 
the Cheta or Hittites, now the most powerful 
people in Western Asia. We find their mon- 
uments on the east bank of the Halys and 
through the whole of Asia Minor, very often 
in the neighborhood of old silver mines. Two 
sculptures carved on the rocks of the pass of 
Karabel (twenty-five miles east of Smyrna) in- 
stead of being memorials, as Herodotus (II., 
T06), tells us, of the conquests of the Egyp- 
tians, are monuments of their most redoubt- 
able enemies, the Cheta, and testify to the ex- 
tension of the Hittite power as far as the 
^gaean. Until recently the extension of the 
Egyptian power in Western Asia was greatly 
exaggerated. It reached its furthest limits 
under Thothmes HI., when the mountain 
range of Amanus was its northern boundary. 
Continually declining under the successors 
of Thothmes HI., of the i8th dynasty. West- 
ern Asia had to be conquered anew by the 
19th dynasty. Setlios I., son and successor of 
Ramses I., once more restored the w\aning 
power of Egypt. Kaft (Phoenicia) was re- 
conquered as far as Byblus, and the Rutenu 
of the Jordan valley submitted voluntarily. 
Mautenur, the Cheta King, made an alli- 
ance with Sethos. Then the Tehenu were 
conquered in the northeast and the race of 
Kas in the south, and memorials of victory 
were set up at Sesebi, which proclaimed that 
Egypt reached southward " to the arms of the 
wind." His military exploits were, however, 
eclipsed by his buildings, first among which 



was the Hall of Columns in the Temple of 
Karnak. In this immense liall, with its 164 
massive stone pillars, Egyptian architectural 
power culminated. He also designed and 
commenced the Rameseum, in honor of his 
father Ramses I. 

Ramses II., popularly called Sestura (the 
Sesostris of Herodotus), was the son and suc- 
cessor of Sethos. His accession was the signal 
for a renewal of the war between Egypt and 
Cheta. Ramses II. penetrated as far as Kadesh, 
on the Orontes. On the wall of the great 
temple of Aboo Simbel there is a picture of 
this battle of Kadesli (57 x 24 feet), which con- 
tains 1,100 figures, and among those there 
is no difficulty in recognizing the slim Egyp- 
tians and the northern features of the Cheta. 
The event was immortalized by the poet Pen- 
daur, which poem was not only carved on the 
walls of Aboo Simbel, but also on the temple 
walls of Abydus, Luxor, and Karnak. But 
this and other successes over the Cheta were 
generally Pyrrhic victories. We hear of 
Egyptian armies penetrating as far north as 
Naharina, or of statues of Ramses II. being 
erected in Tunep, and we may still see his 
features sculptured on the rocks near the 
mouth of the Nahr-el-Kelb near Byblus. But 
when, after thirty-four years of struggle, peace 
was concluded between Cheta and Egyptians, 
the latter w^ere confined to the small part of 
Syria between the Jordan and the coast. The 
Hittites had succeeded in driving the Egyp- 
tians from the valley of the Orontes and from 
Naharina. The "great king of the Cheta," 
Khita-Sira, entered into an alliance, defensive 
and offensive, with Ramses II., who henceforth 
confined his warlike exploits to the land of 
Kas. The remaining thirty-six years of this 
long reign were mostly spent in the execu- 
tion of great works, partly of utility, partly of 
ornament. 

Among the great works of utility are: the 
great wall,which extended for ninety miles from 
Chetam (Pelusium) to Anu ; the great canal, 
which connected Pi-Bast (Bubastus on the 
Nile) with the sea of Sekot (Gulf of Suez), and 
tlie enlarging of Tanis, the great city of the 
Delta, which he made his capital. He was the 
founder of Pi-Ramesu, Pi-Tum, Pi-Ptah, Pi- 
Ammon, and Pi-Rah. He finished the Ra- 
meseum began by his father, and erected 
numerous other temples at Abydus, Memphis, 
and Thebes, but he cared more for the size 
and number of his buildings than for their 
careful construction and artistic finish. To 
this, however, Aboo Simbel forms a striking 
exception. A huge and solemn temple was 
hewn out of a mountain, and its entrance 
guarded by four colossi, each with a divine 



1250 B.C. 



Plate IV. 



THE 

HITTITE ASCENDENCY 

IN ^VESTERX ASIA. 

EGYPT UNDER RAMESES II. 
ASSYRIA UNDER TUGULTININEP 

The J littite Ascendency in 

Western Asia I 1 

JEgyjit under Jiamtsts the Great L_J 

Assyria under Tugultininep I. J I 




Copyright, ISSG, ly Tounstnd JiIacCo\ 



Struthe'-s, Senoss il Co., i:ngr'5 and I'r's, N.T. 



THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. 



calm imprinted upon its mighty features, and 
with eyes fixed toward the rising of the sun. 
Though no longer the royal residence Thebes 
was the great city of the Empire. The city 
must have presented a most marvellous ap- 
pearance when the architectural works of the 
Pharaohs stood erect and rose up from the 
earth solid and massive as rocks on either 
bank of the Nile, while the multitude of obe- 
lisks and colossi towered up like a forest of 
stone. On the right bank rose the buildings 
of the residence of the Pharaoh. Close to 
the river stood the immense temples, behind 
these the palaces of the kings and nobles, and 
still farther from the river, in shady streets, 
were the high, narrow houses of the citizens. 

The ruins of two colossal temples still re- 
main. The greatest (1200 x 360 feet) is near 
the modern village of Karnak. A smaller one 
(over 800 feet long) is at the modern village 
of Luxor (two miles south of Karnak). On 
the western bank was the famous necropolis 
of Thebes. Looking up from the shore to the 
precipice of the western hills, hundreds of 
closed portals could be seen, some solitary, 
others closely arranged in rows. They were 
the tombs of the Thebans. The graves and 
the passages that led to them are all hewn in 
the rock. Separated from the first range of 



hills by a desolate ravine, there rises, farther 
to the west, a second wall of rock, which the 
Arabs call Biban el-Moluk, /.<?., the Gates of 
the Kings. Here are the tombs of the kings 
of the 19th and 20th dynasties. 

MESOPOTAMIA DURING THE STRUGGLE 
BETWEEN EGYPTIANS AND HITTITES. 

While Egyptians and Cheta were fighting 
for the dominion of Syria, the Assyrian mon- 
arch Tugultininep made an end to the Kos- 
saean dominion over Kardunias. About 1250 
he ascends the Assyrian throne and calls him- 
self henceforth King of Assur, Sumer, and 
Akkad. 

For a short time the whole of Mesopotamia 
was united. But after the Hittites had made 
peace with the Egyptians they assailed the 
Assyrian Empire on the North and West, and 
Akkad and Sumer seized the opportunity to 
make themselves free. But their independ- 
ence lasted a short time only. They were con- 
tinually distracted by civil wars and assailed 
by their neighbors, and the literature and cul- 
ture of the South migrated gradually to As- 
syria. 

Plate IV. gives the condition of Western Asia 
at the time of the conclusion of the peace be- 
tween the Egyptians and Cheta or Hittites. 



WESTERN ASIA AFTER THE EXPULSION OF THE EGYPTIANS. 



THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. 

The decline of Egypt begins immediately 
after the death of Ramses H. The fourteenth 
son, Menephthah, who succeeded him (accord- 
ing to some the Pharaoh of the Exodus) had 
constantly to repel invasions. Under his three 
immediate successors (the last monarchs of 
the 19th dynasty) civil war added to invasion, 
brought Egypt to the brink of destruction. 

The 20th dynasty had again to free the 
country from foreign rule, under which it had 
suffered for thirteen years. Set-nekth, the 
deliverer and founder of the dynasty, was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Ramses HI. (Rampsinitus), 
the last of the native heroes. On his accession 
(1180 B.C.) Egypt was surrounded on all sides 
by enemies (Tehenu, Cheta, Maxyes). Ram- 
ses HI. conquered them all, and filled his 
coffers with the spoil of his enemies. When 
peace was established he increased his wealth 
by building a fleet of merchantmen in the 
harbor of Suez, and by renewing the mining- 
stations of Sinai. He endeavored to surpass 



the monarchs of the 19th dynasty in the mag- 
nificence of their buildings. At Medinet Abu, 
opposite Luxor, he erected a palace of such 
solidity that it still remains. When he died 
he left his son, Rameses IV., a prosperous and 
peaceful kingdom ; the Empire of earlier days 
had gone, and Egypt was generally contracted 
to its own borders, but wnthin these borders it 
was at peace. The succeeding kings of the 
20th dynasty were all named Ramses, and 
each was as insignificant as his predecessor. 
The high-priests of Amon at Thebes gradually 
supplanted their power, until at last all things 
were ripe for revolution, and the high-priest 
Hirhor seized the throne (1050 B.C.). He was 
the founder of the 21st dynasty, under which 
Egypt irrevocably lost the remnant of her 
Asiatic provinces. 

A rival dynasty arose at Tanis, in the Delta, 
which gradually extended its power as far as 
Syene. The high-priests were driven from 
the Theban throne, and became again priests 
and governors of Thebes. Some members of 
Hirhor's family sought and found a refuge in 



1000 B.C. 



Plate V. 




THE HOLY LAND AND PHCENICIA. 



the land of Kas, where they founded the 
Ethiopian Empire, of which Napata, at the 
foot of Gebel Barkal (the Holy Mountain) 
was the capital (about looo b.c). Egyptian 
w^as the language, the religion, and the whole 
civilization. What had remained theory in 
Egypt became a fact in Ethiopia. A long in- 
scription tells us that the king is chosen im- 
mediately by the God Amon himself, through 
his oracle, and that the priests in the name of 
Amon may order the king to kill himself. 
The rule of the Tanitic Dynasty (the 21st 
Dynasty of Manetho) seems to have lasted 
about one hundred and twenty years (1060- 
943 B.C.), during the greater part of which the 
high-priests of Amon were the almost inde- 
pendent governors of the Theban district. 

This Tanitic Dynasty was finally overthrown 
by Sheshunk, the general-in-chief, who heads 
the 2 2d dynasty (943), and established his 
court at Bubastus. He made also an end to 
the semi-independence of Thebes under the 
descendants of Hirhor. 



THE HOLY LAND AND THE PHOENICIANS. 

The Phoenicians. — A narrow but fertile 
strip of land, from ten to fifteen miles in 
breadth, and one hundred and fifty in length, 
shut in between Lebanon and the Sea, was the 
home of the Phoenicians, who called it Ca- 
naan, "the lowlands." The Egyptians named 
it the land of Keft, or "the palm." Its inhab- 
itants were called Fenchu, whence the Greek 
Phoenikes and the Latin Poeni. On this nar- 
row strip arose the Phoenician cities. Byblos, 
with its dependency of Berytus, was perhaps 
the oldest settlement on the coast. It always 
formed a distinct territory in the midst of the 
Phoenician confederacy. The principal towns 
of this confederacy were : Acco, Tyre, Sidon, 
Tripolis, and Aradus. These cities were the 
first trading communities the world had seen. 
Their power and wealth, and even their exist- 
ence, depended on commerce. Their colonies 
were originally mere marts, and their voyages 
of discovery were undertaken in the interest 
of trade. The tin of Britain, the silver of 
Spain, and the pearls and ivory of India, all 
flowed into their harbors. But the purple 
trade was the staple of their industry. It was 
by the help of the murex, or purple fish, that 
they had first become prosperous, and when 
the coast of Palestine could no longer supply 
sufficient purple for the demands of the world 
they made their way in search of it to the 
coasts of Greece, of Sicily, and of North 
Africa. Thus the Phoenicians became the 
intermediaries of ancient civilization. One 
of the earliest spots colonized by them was 



the Egyptian Delta, which became so thickly 
populated by Phoenicians as to cause it to be 
termed Keft-ur (Caphtor), or Greater Phoe- 
nicia. This Delta was the space between the 
most distant branches of the river Nile, which 
was called Delta on account of its almost tri- 
angular shape, resembling that of the Greek 
letter Delta (A). The point where the river 
begins to bifurcate has remained about the 
same. Here the river anciently divided into 
three branches, the Pelusiac, running east, 
the Canopic, running west, and the Seben- 
nytic, which flowed between these two, contin- 
uing indeed the general northward direction 
hitherto taken by the Nile, and piercing the 
Delta through the centre. From the Seben- 
nytic branch two others were derived, the 
Tanitic and the Mendesian, both of which 
emptied themselves between it and the Pelu- 
siac branch. The lower part of the remaining 
two branches, the Bolbitic and the Phatnitic, 
were artificial, and were constructed probably 
when the outer outlets began to dry up. It 
is by these two mouths that the river at the 
present day finds its outlet. 

The Hebrews. — In the Eastern part of the 
Delta, in the district of Gosen (or Goshen), 
the Hebrew nation arose. In that country 
the descendants of Jacob became a nation ; 
Moses conducted the Hebrews out of Egypt 
(1320 B.C.). When the Hebrews had delivered 
themselves from the dominion of Egypt they 
pastured their flocks on the peninsula of Sinai, 
from whence they threw themselves upon 
the rich uplands on the east of the Jordan. 
Then they descended into the- valley and in- 
vaded the land beyond the river. They con- 
quered the Prouiised Land, but without entire- 
ly subjugating the former inhabitants. To 
the tribe of Levi was given the exclusive care 
and service of the tabernacle and all things 
used in the religious ceremonial. The other 
twelve tribes, named from ten sons of Jacob 
and two sons of Joseph (Ephraim and Manas- 
seh), settled in separate districts, which were 
more or less cut off from one another by rem- 
nants of the former inhabitants, and formed 
an exceedingly loose union of twelve small 
states under tribal chiefs, which was at times 
hard pressed by neighboring tribes. In order 
to make head against them, the tribes were 
firmly united into a kingdom. Three mon- 
archs ruled the united tribes : Saul, David, 
and Solomon. Each reigned forty years. 

The progress of the nation during this brief 
space is most remarkable. The first was 
merely a general ; the second was a warrior 
king, who enlarged the boundaries of Pales- 
tine, fixed the capital at Jerusalem, and or- 
ganized an army ; the third was a magnificent 



THE FIRST ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 



Oriental monarch. Under this third king, 
Solomon, the Hebrews were the paramount 
race in Syria. An empire had been formed 
whicli reached from the Euphrates, at Thap- 
sacus, to the Red Sea and the borders of 
Egypt. Numerous monarchs were tributary 
to the Great King, who reigned at Jerusalem, 
which court vied in splendor with those of 
Nineveh and Memphis. But the power and 
greatness of the king had become oppressive 
to the bulk of the people. Such a rapid 
growth was necessarily exhaustive of the na- 
tion's strength, and the decline of the Israel- 
ites dates from the division of the kingdom 
(975 B.C.). 

Rehoboam, son of Solomon, drove the bulk 
of his native subjects into rebellion. In the 
place of the mighty empire which under 
David and Solomon took rank among the fore- 
most powers of the earth we find two petty 
kingdoms. The kingdom of Israel (975-721), 
established by the revolt of Jeroboam, com- 
prised ten out of the twelve tribes, and reached 
from the borders of Damascus to within ten 
miles from Jerusalem. It included the whole 
of the Trans-Jordanic territory, and exercised 
lordship over the Moabites. The kingdom of 
Judah (975-586) was composed of two entire 



tribes only, and confined to the lower and less 
fertile portion of the Holy Land. It compen- 
sated, however, for these disadvantages by its 
compactness, its unity, the strong position of 
its capital, and the indomitable spirit of its in- 
habitants. 



FIRST ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 

The first Assyrian Empire became about 
1 100 B.C. for a short time the ruling power in 
Western Asia. Tiglath-Pileser I. (the Tugulti- 
palesarra of the great cylindrical inscriptiony 
had welded together an empire which em- 
braced nearly the whole of Mesopotamia and 
the mountainous tracts beyond the Euphrates 
as far as the Black Sea (the sea of the Nairi 
country). Even Northern Syria acknowledged 
his over-lordship. Under his feeble successor 
it declined rapidly. 

The district of Pitru, between the Sagur and 
the Euphrates, fell into the hands of the king 
of Bit-Adini. David was enabled to carry the 
Hebrew arms as far as the banks of the Eu- 
phrates, and Assyria itself was overrun by the 
victorious armies of the Babylonian King 
Sibir, who ruled as independent monarch over 
Akkad and Sumer. 



THE ASSYRIAN ASCENDENCY IN WESTERN ASIA. 



THE FIRST ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 

After 1 100 B.C. the history of Assyria is a 
blank. When about 950 b.c. the veil is once 
more lifted, we find the Assyrian throne oc- 
cupied by Assur-dayan II., under whose great- 
grandson, Assur-natsir-pal (884-860 b.c.) As- 
syria again became the ruling power in 
Western Asia. The whole tract between the 
Euphrates and Tigris, from the sources of the 
twin rivers as far as Kardunias (Babylonia), 
and the mountain tracts as far as lakes Van 
and Urmia obeyed him. In a large inscrip- 
tion he tells us how (about 876 b.c.) he crossed 
the Euphrates near Karkamis. "All kings of 
these countries came to me, they embraced 
my feet and I took their hostages." He pene- 
trated till deep into the Lebanon. In the oak 
forests of Mount Amanus he caused beams to 
be cut to be used in his temples at Ninua, 
and his image was sculptured on the rocks 
near the sources of the Tigris. 

Great as his conquests were, they were far 
surpassed by those of his son Shalmaneser II. 
(860-824 B.C.) whose long and prosperous reign 



of more than thirty-six years marks the climax 
of the first Assyrian Empire. In the begin- 
ning of his reign he annihilated the old Hittite 
population of Bet-Adini, which was settled 
anew with Assyrian colonists, and the old 
Hittite town Tilbarsip was made his residence 
and its ancient name changed to Kar-Shal- 
maneser. From this place he made continual 
excursions in the Western countries. The 
Halys became the western boundary of the 
Empire. Tarsus, wdth the whole of Eastern 
Cilicia, was conquered in 834 b.c. The rivers 
Kuros and Phasis formed the northern bound- 
ary. In the East Amada (Medians) en Parsua 
(not Persians, but a tribe of Western Media), 
obeyed him. Southward his empire stretched 
as far as the Persian Gulf, where the Caldai 
or Chaldaeans, who inhabited the marshes 
near the mouths of the twin rivers, paid him 
tribute. This is the first time their name oc- 
curs in history. But the decay of the empire 
began before the great conquerer had closed 
his eyes. A terrible rebellion clouded the end 
of his reign, headed by his eldest son Assur- 
dayan-pal. It was put down, however, by his 



10 



THE SECOND ASSYIUAN EMPIRE. 



second son Samas-Rimmon, who succeeded 
him. The celebrated black obelisk of Shal- 
maneser II. enumerates the campaigns of the 
old conqueror. (The extent of his empire is 
indicated on the map by a red line.) 

Only sixty years after Shalmaneser's death, 
the last of his descendants, Assur-nirari, 
mounted the throne, from which he was driven 
after an inglorious reign of ten years by Pul, 
one of his generals. Pul seized the crown 
(April, 745 b.c), and became the founder of the 
second Assyrian Empire. 

He assumed the name of the ancient con- 
queror, Tiglath-Pileser (745-727 b.c). 

THE SECOND ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 

This second Assyrian Empire was essen- 
tially a commercial one. It was founded and 
maintained for the purpose of attracting the 
trade of Western Asia. The resources of the 
Empire were reserved for the subjugation of 
Babylonia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, the 
rich and civilized marts of the ancient world. 
The conquered nations became subject prov- 
inces, governed by Assyrian Satraps ; while 
turbulent populations were deported to some 
distant part of the Empire. 

The third king, an usurper, who assumed 
the venerable name of Sargon (723-705) was 
the father of this policy, In 722 B.C. he took 
Samaria and deported twenty-seven thousand 
two hundred of its leading inhabitants into 
Media ; then he crushed the Philistines, made 
his way to Egypt along the sea-coast, through 
Philistia, and conquered the Egyptians at 
Raphia (Rapichi). But this victory had no 
further consequences. The Assyrians did not 
dare to enter Egypt. Three years later (717 
B.C.) he took Karkamis, the wealthy capital of 
the once powerful Hittites, which commanded 
the great caravan road from the East. By 
this capture Assyria became mistress of the 
trade of Western Asia. Sargon was succeeded 
by his son Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), under 
whom Babylon, which had revolted, was capt- 
ured. Its inhabitants were sold into slavery 
and the venerable city utterly destroyed (692 
B.C.). But it was rebuilt by his son and suc- 
cessor, Esar-haddon (681-668 B.C.). Hence- 
forward, Babylon became the second capital of 
the Empire, the Assyrian court residing alter- 
nately there and at Nineveh. This tactful 
policy pacified the South. His political sagac- 
ity was equal to the high military talents 
which enabled him to complete the fabric of 
the Second Empire by the conquest of Egypt 
(672 B.C.). It was divided into twenty satra- 
pies, governed partly by Assyrians, partly by 
native vassal-princes, who were, however, 



watched by a number of Assyrian garrisons. 
The Assyrian supremacy lasted about ten 
years. 

Esar-haddon was succeeded by his son As- 
sur-bani-pal (668-626), the Sardanapalus of 
the Greeks, who was a munificent patron of 
literature and art. Under him the Assyrian 
Empire reached its final limits. 

He found Egypt in a state of revolt. Two 
campaigns were required to quell it. Thebes 
was plundered and destroyed, the ground 
strewn with its ruins, and two of the obelisks 
at Karnak sent as trophies to Nineveh (662 
B.C.). Tyre surrendered to him, and far-off 
Cilicia owned his supremacy. The name of 
the great king spread to the extreme west of 
Asia Minor, and Gyges, of Lydia, voluntarily 
sent him tribute, trusting to Assyria for de- 
fence against the adherents of the dynasty he 
had displaced and the Cimmerian hordes that 
menaced him without. But Gyges soon dis- 
covered that the friendship of Nineveh was a 
burden rather than a gain. The Assyrian 
Empire was threatening to swallow up all the 
East. 

But in 652 B.C. a general insurrection broke 
out, headed by Assur-bani-pal's brother, the 
Viceroy of Babylon, in the East, and by Psam- 
metichus of Sais in the West. Psammetichus, 
the Assyrian vassal-king of Sais and Memphis, 
succeeded in shaking off the Assyrian yoke 
and restoring the independence of Egypt 
(about 645 B.C.) ; for Assur-bani-pal was too 
much occupied with the revolt of Babylon. 
With great difficulty this revolt v/as crushed. 
Babylon was reduced by famine, and Sam- 
mughes burnt himself to death in his palace. 
The union of Babylonia with Assyria now be- 
came closer than before. It was administered 
by a subordinate and often changed governor. 
But after Assur-bani-pal's death these gover- 
nors again began to extend their power, and 
one of them, Nabopolassar, made himself in- 
dependent (625 B.C.). 

THE FALL OF ASSYRIA. 

The loss of Babylonia was soon followed by 
greater misfortunes. Through the North- 
eastern passes of the Iranian plateau Sacian 
Scythians forced their way among the Median 
tribes then inhabiting Iran. To avoid anni- 
hilation the hitherto loosely connected tribes 
united and formed a strong Median Empire, 
which forced the invaders across the Zagros 
Mountains into Assyria. This attack shook 
the Assyrian power to its very foundation. 
While Assyria was still smarting under its con- 
sequences, Nabopolassar of Babylonia made 
an alliance with the Median king Cyaxares 



11 



ABOUT 660 B. C. 



Plate VI. 




LYDIA AND MEDIA. 



(Hvakhsatsa) for the purpose of dividing 
Assyria among them (608 B.C.). 

Now at length the time had come to destroy 
the proud nation which had treated all other 
peoples with the deepest disdain, considering 
themselves in their own conceit the true lords 
of the earth, more wise, more moral, more 
pious than the rest of mankind. We neither 
know the precise circumstances under which, 
nor even the precise time (but somewhere 
about 606 B.C.) when Assyria was destroyed. 



But it was one of the most terrible catastro- 
phes that ever happened. Not only an Empire 
was destroyed that a few years before had 
ruled the whole of Western Asia, but a whole 
nation which for centuries had been the curse 
of all other nations was utterly effaced. The 
four capitals Assur, Ninua, Kalach, and Dur- 
Sarrukin, were so thoroughly blotted out that 
they never were inhabited again. They dis- 
appeared from the face of the earth as the 
nation that had built them. 



ASIA AFTER THE FALL OF ASSYRIA. 



LYDIA AND MEDIA. 

Two considerable empires arose (606 B.C.) 
out of the ashes of Assyria — the Babylonian 
and Median. These empires were established 
by mutual consent ; they were connected to- 
gether by the ties of affinity which united their 
rulers. To Cyaxares, the founder of the Me- 
dian Empire, the conquest of Assyria did not 
bring a time of repose. He engaged in a 
series of wars, and subdued to himself all Asia 
to the east of the Halys. 

The advance of his western frontier to this 
river brought him in contact with the Lydian 
power. 

The broad plains of the Hermus and Cays- 
ter, in which the Lydian monarchy grew up, 
are the richest in Asia Minor, and the moun- 
tain chains by which they are girdled, while 
sufficiently high to protect them, form cool 
and bracing sites for cities, and are rich in 
minerals of various kinds. 

The first Lydian dynasty of the mythical 
Atyads was succeeded by the second dynasty 
of the Heracleids, whose rule lasted for over 
five hundred years. This dynasty ended with 
Candaules, who was killed (690 B.C.) by 
Gyges, the founder of the third dynasty — the 
Mermnadae. He extended the Lydian domin- 
ion as far as the Hellespont. During his 
reign Lydia was invaded by the Cimmerians. 
Gyges, after driving them out several times, 
was finally captured in battle and beheaded by 
them (652 B.C.). His great-grandson, Alyattes 
ni., succeeded in extirpating the Cimmerian 
scourge. The expulsion of the Cimmerians 
gave him the sovereignty of Asia Minor as far 
as the river Halys, which became the bound- 
ary between Media and Lydia. In 590 b.c. 
war broke out between the two empires. 
After six years of fighting a treaty between 
Alyattes and Cyaxares was brought about 



(585 B.C.) by the kindly offices of the Baby- 
lonian King and the intervention of the 
Eclipse (May 28th), foretold by Thales. In 
order to cement this treaty, the daughter of 
Alyattes, Aryenis, was married to Astyages, 
the son of Cyaxares. By this peace the three 
great monarchies of the time — the Median, 
Lydian, and the Babylonian — were placed on 
terms of the closest intimacy. From the 
shores of the ^gean to those of the Persian 
Gulf, Western Asia was now ruled by inter- 
connected dynasties, bound by treaties to re- 
spect each other's rights and perhaps to lend 
each other aid in important conjunctures. 

Lydia especially reaped the fruit of this 
alliance. After the capture of Smyrna had 
provided it with a port, it rapidly progressed 
in power and property. Its ships trafficked in 
all ports of the ^gean, and its kings sent of- 
ferings to Delphi and affected to be Greek. 
It remained for Croesus, however, the son of 
Alyattes, to make himself master of the weal- 
thy trading cities of Ionia. With the com- 
merce of Ionia and the native treasures of 
Lydia alike at his command he became the 
richest monarch of his age, and all the nations 
of Asia Minor as far as the Halys owned his 
sway (with the sole exception of Lycia). 

BABYLONIA AND EGYPT. 

The fourth of the great powers was Egypt. 
After the Assyrian garrisons had been driven 
out, and the vassal-kings had been reduced 
(not without Lydian assistance), Psammetichus 
became the sole and independent Lord of 
united Egypt. He was the founder of the 
26th dynasty, under which took place a re- 
vival of peace, power, and prosperity, ac- 
companied by a revival of art. Sais, the 
capital of the 26th dynasty, was adorned with 
buildings which almost rivalled the mighty 



12 



THE FALL OF MEDIA. 



monuments of Thebes. Necho (609-595 ^c-X 
the son of Psammetichus, strove to make the 
Egyptians the chief trading people of the 
world. An attempt was accordingly made to 
unite the Red Sea and the Mediterranean by 
cutting a canal from Bubastis to the Bitter 
Lakes, and only given up after the death of 
120,000 of the laborers. Phoenician ships were 
sent to circumnavigate Africa, and returned 
successful after three years' absence. But 
Necho's dreams of Asiatic sovereignty were 
dissipated by his defeat at Karkamis at the 
hands of Nebuchadnezzar, who, in succeeding 
his father, in 604 b.c, found himself the un- 
disputed Lord of all the countries between the 
Tigris and Mediterranean. 

Necho's son, Psammetichus II. (595-589), 
kept carefully away from any conflict with the 
mighty ruler of Babylonia, but the next Pharao, 
Apries (Hophra), was anxious to avenge his 
grandfather's reverses by capturing Sidon and 
Gaza. He made an alliance (590 b.c.) with 
Zedekiah, the Babylonian vassal-king of Judah, 
and induced the Phoenician towns to refuse 
to pay tribute to Nebuchadnezzar. But the 
Babylonians again shattered the army of the 
Pharao, and laid siege to Jerusalem, which 
(586 B.C.) was taken. Zedekiah saw his sons 
murdered before his eyes and then was 
blinded, and after the temple and palace had 
been burned and the city sacked, he, with all 
the families of the upper-class, was carried 
away to Babylon. 

Another old nation was destroyed. But it 
continued to exist as a religious community 
until the present day. What Jeremiah so often 
had foretold had actually come to pass. Jeru- 



salem had fallen. When Gedaljah, who had 
been made Babylonian governor of Judah, was 
killed by Ismael, a descendant of the royal 
house, the remainder of the Jews, in order to 
escape the Babylonian vengeance, went with 
Jeremiah to Egypt, where they were received 
with open arms by Apries. About that time 
the Libyans invoked the help of the Pharaoh 
against the Greeks who had founded in 630 
Cyrene, and who gradually colonized the 
African coast. Many Jews enlisted in the 
army, which was sent by Apries against the 
Cyrenaeans, but they perished miserably with 
the greater part of the Egyptian army. The 
ill-fated expedition was followed by the revolt 
of the army and the accession of Amasis 
(Aahmes II.), the brother-in-law of Apries, 
who, with his Greek mercenaries, was con- 
quered at Momemphis and executed (569 b.c). 
Amasis made but one conquest — Cyprus — but 
avoided carefully from meddling with the af- 
fairs of Syria, which now formed an integral 
part of the great Babylonian Empire, called 
after its famous capital, Babylon, which was 
enlarged and adorned by Nebuchadnezzar on 
a scale of unequalled splendor. Its buildings 
and walls were worthy of the metropolis of 
the world. Hanging gardens were constructed 
for Queen Amytis (daughter of Cyaxares), and 
the great temple of Bel was roofed with cedar 
and overlaid with gold. After a reign of forty- 
two years Nebuchadnezzar died (562 B.C.). 
Within eight years after his death the power 
passed from the house of Nabopolassar. Na- 
bonidos was raised to the throne, who, after a 
reign of seventeen and a half years, witnessed 
the end of the Babylonian Empire (538 B.C.). 



THE FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 



THE FALL OF MEDIA. 

Cyaxares, the founder of the Median Em- 
pire, died 584 B.C., leaving his crown to his son 
Astyages (Istuwegu), who had neither his 
father's enterprise nor his ability. During his 
long reign he abstained almost wholly from 
military enterprises, and thus an entire gen- 
eration of Medes grew up without seeing 
actual service, which alone makes the soldier. 
Cyrus, the vassal-king of Persia, saw his op- 
portunity, pressed his advantage, and estab- 
lished the supremacy of his nation, before the 
unhappy effects of Astyages' peace policy 
could be removed. He waited till Astyages 
was advanced in years, and so disqualified for 



command ; till the veterans of Cyaxares were 
almost all in their graves ; and till the Baby- 
lonian throne was occupied by a king who was 
not likely to give Astyages any aid. He was 
successful in bringing about the substitution 
of Persia for Media as the ruling power in 
Western Asia. The fall of the Median Empire 
(558 B.C.) was due immediately to the genius 
of the Persian prince ; but its ruin was pre- 
pared, and its destruction was really caused 
by the short-sightedness of the Median mon- 
arch. Lydia (546) and Babylonia (538) 
shared the fate of the Median Empire. Har- 
pagus, a general of Cyrus, made the Greek 
towns on the coast of Asia Minor tributary to 
the Persians. The Phoen'cians and Cilicians 



13 



THE FOUNDATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 



retained their native rulers under Persian su- 
premacy ; the Jews were sent back from Bab- 
ylon to Palestine. 

THE MEDIAN REVOLT. 

Cyrus, who was occupied during the last 
nine years of his reign with wars against East- 
ern nations, fell in one of these expeditions 
(529) and was succeeded by his eldest son, 
Cambyses (Kambudschija), who added Egypt 
and Ethiopia to the Empire (529-522). On 
his return from the Egyptian expedition he 
died in Syria. A Median priest, who knew 
that Bardija, the younger son of Cyrus, had 
been murdered by command of Cambyses, 
proclaimed himself the brother and successor 
of the late king. After a short reign the 
usurper was attacked in his castle, Sikajauvati, 
in Media, by six noble Persians, headed by the 
true heir to the throne, Darius (Darayavahush), 
son of Hystaspes (Vistaspa), the head of the 
younger line of the Achaemenidae, the elder hav- 
ing become extinct with Cambyses and Bardija. 

A succession of arduous struggles was 
needed to restore unity to the empire. But 
in 519 B.C. Darius could look upon his victory 
as complete, and erect a grand monument in 
memory of it on the spot where the highroad 
from Babylon to Egbatana crosses the Zagros 
Mountains. (Plate VII.) This monument of 
Behistun is of great significance for Greek as 
well as for Asiatic history. It marks the re- 
turn to the old policy of the Achaemenidae, 
which could not leave the subjection of the 
Greeks, begun under Cyrus, a work half done. 
The triumph of Darius announced the ap- 
proaching struggle between Hellenes and 
Barbarians, or, as had now come to be the set- 
tled distinction, between Asia and Europe. 

THE SCYTHIAN EXPEDITION. 

It broke out eleven years after the erec- 
tion of the monument at Behistun (508 B.C.), 
when Darius desired to annex Thrace to the 
Persian Empire as a first step to embrace in 
his dominion the lovely isles and coasts of 
Greece. But on the right flank of an army 
invading Thrace lay the formidable power of 
Scythia, the ancient enemy of Southwestern 
Asia. 

This had to be subdued before Thrace could 
be conquered. 

Hence the Scythian Expedition was no in- 



sane project of a frantic despot, but a well- 
concerted plan for the furtherance of a great 
design and the permanent advantage of his 
empire. 

Collecting an army of nearly 800,000 men, 
and a fleet of 600 ships (chiefly from the 
Greek towns in Asia Minor), he crossed the 
Bosporus, marched through Thrace and passed 
the Danube by a bridge (formed by the Greek 
vessels) just above the apex of the delta. The 
Scythians retired on his approach, endeavoring 
to destroy his army by depriving it of provi- 
sions. But the commissariat of the Persians 
was, as usual, well arranged, and Darius es- 
caped without important losses, recrossed the 
Danube, and met on his return march through 
Thrace no opposition. Before passing the 
Bosporus the king commissioned Megabazus 
to complete the reduction of Thrace, and to 
make a regular satrapy in Europe. 

Megabazus subdued not only the whole of 
Thrace, but received even the submission of 
Amyntas, King of Macedonia, and the Persian 
Empire now extended in Europe from the 
Danube to Mt. Olympus, the boundary be- 
tween Macedonia and Thessaly. 

Before his death in 485 B.C. the boundaries 
of the empire of Darius were : in the West, 
Mt. Olympus and the Great Syrtis ; in the 
East, the lower Indus ; in the North, the Cau- 
casus and the river Jaxartes ; while, in the 
South, the tribes of Arabia, and the negroes 
above Nubia acknowledged him as their lord. 
Thus his perseverance and vigor had succeeded 
not only in re-establishing, but even in greatly 
extending the kingdom of Cyrus. He was as 
energetic as he was prudent, but on the whole 
inclined to mildness. The great aim of his 
life was to give his empire a regular administra- 
tion. This was the first attempt known to his- 
tory to govern on a fixed plan. The founda- 
tions which he laid were so firm that, in spite 
of many serious rebellions, the empire never 
fell from internal disorganization. Thus Da- 
rius (Darayavahush) became the real found- 
er of the Persian Empire, which he made a 
homogeneous whole, divided into 29 prov- 
inces, whose governors were called satraps 
(khskathrapavan — land-ruUrs), who had in- 
deed the outward splendor of kings, but were, 
nevertheless, under strict control. Communi- 
cation between the provinces was kept up by 
post-roads which all met at the capital, Susa. 



14 



660 B. C, 



PLATE VII. 




THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 



BEFORE THE PERSIAN WARS. 



SOURCES OF GREEK HISTORY. 

The Historians. — We derive our knowl- 
edge of ancient Greece from native sources 
only. For the earliest times we have the 
Iliad and Odyssea, which pass under the 
name of Homer. Modern criticism agrees 
with ancient in viewing them as the earliest 
remains of Greek literature that have come 
down to us. It is impossible to determine 
their date. In a general waj we may say that 
they are at least three hundred years older 
than the next oldest Greek literature. 

For the events of the early history of Greece 
were not accompanied by any contemporane- 
ous historical account. Even the struggle 
with Persia remained, for nearly a genera- 
tion, left to oral tradition. When Herodotus, 
about forty years after the battle of Marathon, 
began to write the history of the Persian wars, 
he had mainly this tradition to fall back upon, 
which was, however, neither complete nor en- 
tirely impartial. On his work, however, our 
knowledge of the Persian wars, in the main, 
depends. The first who recorded contempo- 
rary events is Thucydides, who narrates the 
history of the Athenian sway from the last 
battle against the Persians to the twenty-sec- 
ond year of the Peloponnesian war (411 B.C.). 

Like Herodotus, Thucydides considers his 
subject as one complete whole. Hence, after 
a masterly introduction, in which he gives a 
suggestive summary of early Greek history, 
the Peloponnesian war is one subject which 
employs his thought and his pen. To this 
narrative the digressions, which are neces- 
sary to illustrate it, form episodes. One is the 
treachery of Pausanias (I., 128-134), which 
led to the appointment of the Athenians, by 
the unanimous voice of the allies, to the high 
position of treasurers of Greece ; another, the 
rise and progress of the Athenian supremacy 
(I., 89-117). 

Xenophon's Hellenica continue the history 



of Thucydides as far as the battle of Mantinea 
(362 B.C.). Valuable as this is for the exact and 
truthful narrative of events which it contains, 
it is dry and uninteresting as compared with 
his Return of the Ten Thousand {Anabasis). 

The Inscriptions. — The study of ancient 
Greek inscriptions, to which so great an im- 
pulse has been given during the last sixty 
years, throws a real, but not a considerable, 
light upon the history of Greece. None 
hitherto found are older than the seventh 
century B.C. ; in the sixth century, and down 
to the Persian war they are rare ; in the latter 
half of the fifth century they become more 
numerous, and there are many which have a 
direct connection with the history of Thucyd- 
ides. They begin to grow numerous and 
legible as Greece declines. The greater part 
of the notices preserved in them relates to the 
time, not of her glory, but of her decay. 

MIGRATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS AROUND 
THE COAST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 

Hellas, in its widest acceptation, was the 
name given to all countries settled by the Hel- 
lenes. It included all branches of the Hel- 
lenic nation which had their language, man- 
ners, and culture in common, without regard 
to the position or extent of their abode. 

Three different tribes were (since the eighth 
century b.c.) included in the common name of 
Hellenes. 

They were : 

I. The ^olians, an Aryan race, from which 
sprung the Ionian and Dorian tribes. Twelve 
^olian colonies were found on the northwest 
coast of Asia Minor. 

H. That part of the ^olians which, before 
historical times, had spread over the southern 
part of the Peloponnesus and the islands of the 
^gean Sea, established themselves, finally, 
under the general name of lonians (emigrants) 
on the more accessible parts of the westero 



15 



EARLY MIGEATIONS AND SEfTLEMENTS. 



coasts of Asia Minor. After the Doric inva- 
sion of the Peloponnesus they were joined by 
other emigrants from their old home. They 
filled the estuary land of the four great riv^ers 
(Maeander, Cayster, Hermus, and Caicus), 
which was called, after them, Ionia. 

III. The Dorians, a tribe cognate with the 
lonians, who in prehistoric times had settled 
in the Thessalian mountains. After iioo B.C. 
they began to migrate southward, and finally 
found permanent abodes in the south of the 
Peloponnesus. The Southern Cyclades, Crete, 
Rhodes, and the southw^est coast of Asia Mi- 
nor, were also occupied by them. 

From the ^olian and Ionian coast of Asia 
Minor issued those mariners who explored the 
interior of the Black Sea, on the one hand, and 
the coast of Italy on the other. The name of 
the Ionian Sea, which was retained by the 
waters intervening between Epirus and Sicily, 
and that of the Ionian Gulf, the term by which 
the Greeks designated the Adriatic Sea, are 
memorials of the fact that the southern and 
eastern coasts of Italy were, once upon a time, 
discovered by seafarers from Ionia. The old- 
est Greek settlement in Italy, Cumae, was 
founded by the town of the same name on the 
coast of Asia Minor. Other Greeks soon fol- 
lowed in the path which those of Asia Minor 
had opened up. We may again distinguish 
three leading groups. 

The original Ionian group, comprehended 
under the name of the Chalcidian towns, in- 
cluded in Italy, Cumae, with the other Greek 
settlements near Vesuvius and Rliegium. In 
Sicily were five Ionic towns, Zancle (afterward 
Messana), Naxos, Catana, Leontini, and Him- 
era. The Achaean group embraced Sybaris and 
the greater part of the cities of Magna Graecia. 
The Dorian group comprehended the majority 
of the Sicilian colonies, while in Italy nothing 
belonged to it but Tarentum and its offset, 
Heraclea. 

We are accustomed to call these Hellenes 
Greeks, a name applied to them by the Ro- 
mans. They were a remarivably handsome, 
intelligent race, which had an invention of 
their own called the City, which city in sending 
forth branches gave birth to others of the 
same description. One of these, Miletus, pro- 
duced three hundred towns, and colonized the 
entire coast of the Black Sea. Others did the 
same, the Mediterranean Sea being encircled 
with a garland of flourishing cities. Each of 
these cities formed a sovereign state, which 
consisted simply of a town with a beach or a 
surrounding border of farms. What was the 
life of this city ? A citizen performed but lit- 
tle manual labor ; he was generally supported, 
and always served, by slaves. He needed, 



however, but little help. He was very ab- 
stemious, olives, garlic, and a bit of dried fish 
constituting a meal. His wardrobe consisted 
of sandals, a small shirt, and a large mantle. 
His house was a narrow, ill-constructed cabin, 
which he only used for sleeping in. The cit- 
izen passed his life in the public thoroughfares 
discussing the best means for preserving and 
aggrandizing his city, canvassing its alliances, 
treaties, laws, and constitution. His occupa- 
tion consisted, substantially, of public business 
and war. He had to be a politician and war- 
rior under penalty of death. For most of 
these cities, built and scattered along the Med- 
iterranean shores, were surrounded by bar- 
barians eager to prey upon them. The citizen, 
therefore, was obliged to be under arms, for 
the rights of war were atrocious ; a vanquished 
city was often devoted to destruction. A man 
might any day see his property pillaged, him- 
self and his sons enslaved, buried in mines, or 
compelled by the lash to turn a mill. 

War, in those days, was a combat between 
man and man, in which the victory belonged 
to the strongest and best trained. Conse- 
quently, the essential thing to insure victory 
(which meant liberty) was to render each war- 
rior the most resistant, the strongest, and the 
most agile body possible. 

Therefore, young people passed the greater 
part of the day in the gymnasia, wrestling and 
racing. It was their aim to produce strong, 
robust bodies, the nimblest and most beautiful 
possible, and no system of education ever suc- 
ceeded better in obtaining them. The Greek 
ideal of a citizen was a man of a fine stock and 
growth, well-proportioned, active, and accom- 
plished in all physical exercises. The great na- 
tional festivals of the Hellenes, the Olympian, 
Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games, were 
the great promoters of physical culture. The 
victorious athlete in the foot-race gave his 
name to the Olympiad ; his praises were chant- 
ed by the greatest poets. On returning to his 
native city he was received in triumph, and 
his strength and agility became the pride of the 
place. Every athlete, once crowned, was en- 
titled to a statue. The Hellenes considered 
the perfection of the human form as attesting 
divinity ; they made their idol of it, they glor- 
ified it on earth by making a divinity of it in 
heaven. Out of this conception statuary is 
born, which adorned the sanctuaries with mo- 
tionless, peaceful, august effigies in which 
human nature recognized its heroes and its 
gods. Statuary, accordingly, is the central 
art of Hellas ; other arts are related to it, ac- 
company it, or imitate it. No other art has 
so well expressed the national Hellenic life : 
no other was so cultivated or so popular. 



16 



560 B. C. 



PLATE YIII. 




SETTLEMENT OF THE HELLENES. 



THE MAIN SETTLEMENT OF THE HEL- 
LENES. 

The Land and Its Divisions. — The South- 
ern and most strictly peninsular part of the 
large Southeastern peninsular of Europe has 
been, since very early times, the especial seat 
of the Hellenes. The lUyrians and Italians, 
whose example has been followed by all other 
European nations, called them Graeci (Greeks) 
and their country Graecia (Greece). 

Its southernmost peninsula, which is con- 
nected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus 
(the Isthmus of Corinth), was designated by 
the populace Peloponnesus (the Island of Pel- 
ops) as if it were actually an island. 

Its historic division into six districts an- 
swers to the natural configuration of a central 
plateau (Arcadia), around which are grouped 
the five other districts (Achaia, Elis, Messenia, 
Laconica, and Argolis, with Corinth). The 
country between Peloponnesus in the south, 
and Epirus and Thessaly in the north, had, 
during the independence of Greece, no partic- 
ular name. It contained ten districts — Mega- 
ris, Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, Doris, Eastern 
Locris, Western Locris, Malis, ^tolia, and 
Acarnania. Not till Roman times was the 
name Hellas misappropriated as the collective 
name of these ten districts. 

Along the Eastern coast of Hellas was the 
large island of Euboea. In its centre it ap- 
proaches the mainland very closely, being 
separated from it by a very narrow, shallow 
strait (the Euripus). It is only in the neigh- 
borhood of this strait that there are plains 
with soil fit for cultivation and here were 
found its principal towns Chalcis and Eretria, 
which during the eighth and seventh centuries 
were very powerful maritime states and found- 
ed numerous colonies on the northern shores 
of the ^gaean Sea and in Sicily and Lower 
Italy. This now was the Greece of history, a 
small country compared with its fame, which 
appears still smaller if you observe how di- 
vided it is ; the principal chains on one side of 
the sea and the lateral chains of the other 
actually isolating the miniature districts from 
each other and making union well-nigh im- 
possible. But attempts at a union of the 
cantons were continually made and met with 
varied success. These attempts form the prin- 
cipal subject of Greek history. 

Early Attempts at Union. — In the earliest 
days of Hellenic occupation of the eastern 
shores of Greece there was formed an Achaean 
Empire centred in the principalities of Tiryns 
and Mycenae (in Argolis), which, at one time 
embraced the whole of the Peloponnesus. 

The Dorian Invasion. — This Achaean Em- 
pire was destroyed by the Dorians. The lions 



of its citadel were as little able to protect My- 
cenae as the gold in its subterranean vaults, 
and in large bodies the sons of the Achaeans 
had to abandon their well-preserved ancestral 
castles. Some of them conquered the Ionic 
population on the southern shore of the Cor- 
inthian gulf and gave for centuries to come 
their name (Achaia) to the old Ionic district, 
the former population of which passed over 
among their kinsmen in Attica. 

Other Achaeans were forced to Boeotia, 
where various tribes who had been driven 
from their home by the Doric invasion met in 
great masses. 

Its bays, especially that of Aulis, became 
the places where the vessels of the fugitives 
assembled. The leadership over the emigrants 
fell naturally in the hands of the Achaeans, 
whose royal houses had been accustomed to 
rule in that ancient world now falling to pieces. 
They settled first on the Thessalian coast, 
then they crossed through the sound (Helles- 
pont) into the Propontis and by way of its 
islands reached the peninsula of Cyzicus. 
Here was reached the mainland, the great 
peninsula of Mount Ida. 

Here a conquest of territory took place, and 
a long and arduous struggle with the native 
states. Here the walls of Dardanian princes 
resisted the sons of the Achaeans, who in 
order to support themselves during the strug- 
gle composed songs of the deeds of their ancient 
lords in war, the Atridae, and nourished their 
courage by recalling the god-like powers of 
Achilles. These songs (Homer's Iliad) have 
not vanished, but have lasted to our days as the 
authentic reminiscences of the warlike deeds 
of the sons of the Achaeans in the lands of the 
Dardanians. 

The Doric Conquest of the Peloponne- 
sus. — While the Achaeans were thus conquer- 
ing the peninsula of Mount Ida, the Dorians 
were completing the conquest of Pelopon- 
nesus. After having conquered Tiryns and 
Mycenae, they built the new Doric capital, 
Argos, at the foot of the ancient rock-fortress 
of Earissa, which soon became the centre of 
the strongest state in the Peloponnesus, its 
territory at one time extending far southward 
along the east coast. The Spartans drove them 
out of their southern territory and then out of 
Cynuria. Sparta had now all the country be- 
tween Mount Taygetus and the Eastern Sea. 
The territory remaining now to Argos was a 
district of from eight to ten miles long and 
four or five wide, Laconica, the Spartan land, 
being about the same size. The loss of terri- 
tory was followed by a decline of authority, 
and Sparta began to rank, instead of Argos, 
as the leading state among the Greeks. 



17 



300 B. C. 



PLATE IX. 



Y S A L.|A Mis 




ATTICA AND THE ATHENIANS. 



The two mountain ranges, Taygetus and 
Parnon, embraced the valley of the Eurotas, 
the upper half of which contains the largest 
and most fertile plain of Laconica, and was 
therefore at all times its political centre. Its 
primaeval name Lacedaemon was accordingly 
applied not only to the capital, but to the 
whole domain belonging to it, which formed 
the central and politically predominant part 
of the Dorian conquests in the Peloponnesus. 
The Laconic name was specially applied to 
the old Achaean population ; from this word 
comes Laconica, the usual geographical desig- 
nation of the whole region. 

Quite close to the old Achaean city Amyclae 
there grew up the Doric capital Sparta, which, 
originally a mere camp, in course of time 
came to be regularly built, though never for- 
tified. The laws and customs of Sparta, 
which were said to have been made by Lycur- 
gus, forbade this distinctly. Their whole life 
was a preparation for the day of battle, and 
men thus trained require no walls. Between 
750-650 B.C. the Spartans conquered the Mes- 
senians, a hardy Doric race like themselves. 
They now possessed the southern part of the 
Peloponnesus from sea to sea. 

In the district of Elis in the west of the 
Peloponnesus, at Olympia, was an ancient sanc- 
tuary of Zeus (the God of life), where once in 
four years a great festival was held. Under 
Spartan protection, this Olympian festival be- 
came the most important meeting-place for 
all the Greeks, and Sparta as its protector was 
tacitly acknowledged as the leading state in 
Greece. Most of the cities were her allies, 
and sent troops when summoned, the Spartan 
kings acting as commanders of the whole 
united army. 

ATTICA AND THE ATHENIANS. 

Attica the Rallying Point for the lonians. 

— In the midst of the popular movements 
which had revolutionized all the states from 
Olympus to Cape Malea, Attica alone had re- 
mained tranquil and unmoved like a rock in 
the sea on which the waves of the agitated 
waters break without submerging it. The 
lonians had there, at least, succeeded in de- 
fending their nationality against the conquer- 
ing Dorians. Here the lonians from all sides 
found a refuge, and Attica became the prin- 
cipal starting-point of the Ionic remigration 
to the Asiatic shores along the high-road 
marked out for them by the double series of 
the Cyclades. Thus the ancient bond of union 
between the opposite coasts of the ^gaean 
was knit anew most closely in Attica. Its 
only actual city, Athenae (nearly five miles 



distant from the shore of the Saronic gulf), 
gradually became to the lonians what Sparta 
was for the Dorians. 

High up in the mountains of Phocis, in the 
narrow rocky valley of the Pleistos, was the 
town of Delphi, where Apollo, the God of 
Light, had his temple and gave his oracles. 
Twelve tribes had formed a union to protect 
this sanctuary, and met twice a year in an 
Amphictyonic Council (?>., council of the 
neighbors). Sparta w^as for a long time the 
favorite of the Delphi God, the strong arm 
for his mundane plans, and intended by him 
to occupy the position of a federal capital in 
Hellas. But Sparta gradually withdrew from 
Delphi, and retired upon her Peloponnesian 
interests, for which Olympia became the new 
centre. And now Delphi became to Athens 
what Olympia was to Sparta, and, as protector 
of Delphi, Athens aspired to be, if not the 
leading state among the Hellenes, anyhow 
the leading state among the lonians. 

The Laws of Draco. — Originally the 
lonians in Attica w^ere ruled by a basileus 
(which meant Ruler and Priest togeihc?-), then 
by an archon (which simply meant i?2//^r). At 
first the Archons were hereditary ; then they 
ceased to be hereditary and they held their 
office only for ten years, and finally (683 B.C.) 
nine archons were appointed to serve one 
year only. They were chosen from among 
the Eupatridce (nobles) and ruled without writ- 
ten laws. The two other classes, the Gebmori 
(farmers) and the Demittrgi (artisans) de- 
manded, 624 B.C., written laws. Hereupon, a 
Eupatrid, Draco, ascertained the rules which 
the judges commonly went by, and wrote 
them down. The fact that through Draco 
the law became a public, instead of a private, 
system was a great step in the development 
of political life, but it had done nothing to 
relieve the distress and bankruptcy of the 
common people, and a social revolution 
seemed imminent. The farmers had bor- 
rowed money at very high interest from the 
wealthy, giving their farms in pledge for the 
payment of the debt, which increased contin- 
ually from the heavy interest. Many farmers 
gradually had become like laborers on a farm 
once their own. Thus the small farmers, the 
back-bone of every country, were threatened 
with total extinction. 

The Laws of Solon. — Solon, while Ar- 
chon Eponymus {i.e., he from whom the year 
is named), persuaded the wealthy to submit to 
a Seisachtheia (removal of burdens), whereby 
debts secured by mortgage were reduced 
about twenty-seven per cent, by the intro- 
duction of a new standard of coinage. 

Solon was now given authority to make a 



18 



CAUSES OF THE PEKSIAX WAKS. 



new constitution for Athens. His plan was 
to weaken the nobles. He, therefore, gave 
every free-born man a vote in the assembly, 
where laws were enacted, archons elected, and 
officers held accountable for their conduct. 
Besides this assembly he established a coun- 
cil of four hundred to prepare the business 
that was to come before the assembly, where 
nothing was to be proposed that had not been 
agreed to by the council. But the councillors 
were to be elected yearly by the people. 

Property, instead of birth, shoidd give rank, 
the people being divided into four classes, ac- 
cording to their income. Only the three rich- 
est classes could hold office, but they had to 
pay the taxes, and to equip themselves as 
soldiers. The wealthiest could serve as ar- 
chons, while only those who had held that of- 
fice were eligible to the ancient Court of the 
Areopagus, which repealed antiquated laws 
and looked after the morals of the people. 

Pisistratus. — But, in spite of Solon's great 
improvements, trouble continued among the 
Athenians until Pisistratus restored order by 
taking the chief power in his own hands. 
Such a one was called a tyrant (lord), not a 
term of reproach, but simply indicating that 
he exercised monarchical power in a state 
where there was no monarch by law. 

Pisistratus upheld the Solonian constitu- 
tion, but he managed that the people should 
always choose archons who suited him (he 



was a political boss). He ruled Athens (560- 
527) with mildness and wisdom, erected beau- 
tiful public buildings, encouraged art, founded 
the first library, and was the first to collect 
the scattered songs of Homer. He be- 
queathed his government to his son, Hip- 
pias (527-510), w^ho conducted it after the 
manner of his father, until his brother, Hip- 
parchus was murdered (514 B.C.). Then he 
became cruel, and was consequently forced to 
leave Athens. He took refuge witii Darius, 
King of Persia. 

Cleisthenes. — The expulsion of Hippias 
was followed by fresh commotions, which were 
allayed by the constitution of Cleisthenes, 
which made Attica a pure democracy. All 
freemen were admitted to citizenship and di- 
vided into ten tribes, each of which sent fifty 
representatives to the council (which was thus 
increased from four hundred to five hundred 
members), and also chose a general. The ten 
generals commanded the army in daily turn. 
These ten tribes were political and religious 
unions, but did not form connected territorial 
divisions. 

To protect the thus created democracy Os- 
tracism was established. This was a purely 
political act of the highest power in the state 
(the sovereign popular assembly) to decree, 
by means of a secret ballot, the banishment of 
any citizen who endangered the public liberty 
without process of law. 



THE PERSIAN WARS. 



WHAT LED TO THE WARS. 

Persian Conquest of Ionia. — In the course 
of the sixth century B.C., Croesus, King of 
Lydia, conquered the Greek towns on the 
coast of Asia Minor, and, when his empire 
was conquered by Cyrus (546 B.C.), Harpagus 
reduced the Greek towns and made them 
tributary to Persia. After the Scythian ex- 
pedition, when 600 Greek vessels had formed 
a united fleet, on the fidelity of which the 
fate of the whole Persian army had depended, 
there was awakened a deep-felt desire for 
national independence, which made it easy for 
a desperate demagogue to persuade them to 
revolt. (See Plate VIII.) 

Aristagoras. — The failure of an attempt on 
Naxos by Aristagoras, governor of Miletus, 
having rendered the security of his appoint- 
ment precarious, he persuaded the Ionian 
towns to revolt. They sought and obtained 



aid from Athens and Eretria, and now sailing 
to Ephesus, the confederates marched up the 
valley of the Cayster and took Sardes, the resi- 
dence of the Satrap of Lydia, at the first 
onset. It caught fire during the plundering 
and was burnt. Aristagoras now hastily re- 
treated with his allies, but they were overtaken 
and suffered a severe defeat from the Persians. 
The Athenians and Eretrians sailed home. 
Although the expedition had been a failure, 
this was speedily forgotten for the glory of its 
one achievement, the burning of Sardes. 
Everywhere along the coast of Asia Minor 
revolts broke out. If a great man had been 
at the head of the movement a successful issue 
might probably have been secured, but Aris- 
tagoras was unequal to the occasion, and the 
struggle for independence, which had promised 
so fair, was soon put down. Miletus, the 
cradle of the revolt, was ruthlessly destroyed 
(494 B.C.), all the other Greek towns had to ac- 



19 



ATTEMPTS TO CONQUER GREECE. 



cept Persian garrisons, and the power of the 
great king was once more firmly established 
over the coasts and islands of the Propontis 
and the ^gaean Sea. 

One thing remained, however : to take ven- 
geance upon the foreigners (Athenians and 
Eretrians) who had dared to lend their aid to 
the king's revolted subjects, and had borne a 
part in the burning of Sardis. 

FIRST ATTEMPT TO CONQUER GREECE, 
IN 492 B.C. 

Two years after the fall of Miletus a Per- 
sian army, commanded by Mardonius, the son- 
in-law of Darius, crossed the Hellespont, and 
marched toward Greece along the coast of 
Thrace, the fleet accompanying it. But while 
the fleet was sailing round the promontory of 
Mount Athos (Plate VIII.) a hurricane arose 
and destroyed 300 ships with 20,000 men. At 
the same time the land army was defeated by 
the Thracians, and Mardonius was forced to 
turn back to Asia. 

This interrupted for the brief space of two 
years the great international struggle between 
Persia and Greece. 

SECOND ATTEMPT TO CONQUER GREECE, 
IN 490 B.C. 

The second expedition, under command of 
Datis and Artaphernes, sailed from the Bay of 
Issus, and entered the ^gaean Sea. Naxos 
was sacked, but on the sacred isle of Delos a 
grand act of homage was performed to the 
divinities of the holy isle. All the world was 
to perceive that the Persian King had no 
thought of despoiling the Hellenic national 
divinities of their honors ; but, on the con- 
trary, wished to restore the ancient festivals 
which once united the European and Asiatic 
shores. From Delos they sailed to Euboea and 
besieged Eretria. On the sixth day the gates 
were opened by traitors. The Persians razed 
the city to the ground, then crossed the Eu- 
ripus, and landed on the plain of Marathon, 
twenty-two miles from Athens (Plate X.). Here 
the Persians were met by 9,000 townsmen of 
Athens, assisted by 1,000 men from the little 
city of Plataeae. 

On September 12th, 490 B.C., the Greeks, 
under Miltiades, fell upon the Persians and 
forced them to retreat. The Athenians lost 
only 192 men, whose memory was honored by 
the erection of a monument on the spot where 
they had fallen. 

THIRD ATTEMPT TO CONQUER GREECE, 
IN 480 B.C. 

The March of Xerxes. — Darius I. was 
succeeded in 486 B.C. by his son Xerxes, who 



at once began to collect an enormous force 
for invading Greece. In every country be- 
tween the Mediterranean and the Indus troops 
were levied. Between Sestos and Abydos 
two bridges of boats were made over the Hel- 
lespont. A fleet of 1,200 war vessels and 3,000 
freight vessels assembled on the coast of Ionia 
and Phoenicia. At Acanthus a canal was cut 
through the promontory of Mount Athos that 
the fleet might avoid the dangerous passage 
around it. In 481 B.C. the troops of forty-six 
nations, all dressed and armed in the manner 
of their native countries, were assembled in 
the plain of Critalla in Cappadocia. In the 
spring of 480 they crossed the Hellespont and 
marched along the southern coast of Thrace, 
and straight across the ridge of Chalcidice 
into the corner of the Thermaean gulf. In 
its innermost recess both divisions (fleet and 
army) of the armada united. After a short 
rest both divisions advanced and encountered 
the enemy about the same time. 

Thermopylae. — The army encountered the 
Greeks at Thermopylae {i.e., war Jti gate), at the 
head of the Malian Gulf. Here the only road, 
which led from Thessaly into Central Hellas, 
ran betw^een the mountains and the marshy sea- 
shore, and at one place the swamp came so 
near the mountain that there was hardly room 
for the road to run between (see Plate X.). At 
this pass 7,000 Greeks under Leonidas were 
placed. The Greek fleet of 270 vessels under 
Eurybiades was posted near Artemisium at the 
northern of the Euboean straits to prevent 
the Persian fleet getting past and landing men 
in the rear of the Greeks at Thermopylae. A 
difficult mountain road, by w^hich the Persians 
might cross and attack them^from behind, was 
guarded by 1,000 Phocians. 

During three days the Persians were held 
at bay on land and sea. But, on the night fol- 
lowing, a body of Persians succeeded in cross- 
ing the mountains. When Leonidas saw what 
had happened he ordered his army hastily to 
retire. But himself, with 300 Spartans and 700 
Thespians, remained to die at their post. When 
the Greeks on the fleet heard that Xerxes had 
succeeded in forcing his way to Thermopylae 
they thought it no use for the fleet to remain at 
Artimisium and sailed to the Island of Salamis. 

Salamis. — Here the Greeks being, through 
the contrivance of Themistocles, surrounded 
by the enemy and forced to fight, won (Sep- 
tember 2oth, 480 B.C.) a brilliant victory over 
the Persian fleet. Xerxes, who had avenged 
the burning of Sardes (in 500 B.C.) by the total 
destruction of Athens, retreated to the Hel- 
lespont, leaving Mardonius in Thessaly with 
an army of 260,000 to complete the conquest 
of the country. 



20 



444 B.C. 



Plate X. 



IScandile 



EASTERN PART OF 

HELLAS AND PELOPONNESUS. 

444 B.C. 




^trjjthen, Seixoas & Co./Engt's and Prls, N.Y. 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAK. 



Platsese. — This force was (September, 479) 
routed by the Greeks under Pausanias at 
Plataeae. This was the first decisive victory of 
the whole war, for Marathon and Salamis had 
only broken the courage of the enemy, while 
here his power, together with that of his allies, 



was annihilated. Thereiore, the day of Plataeae 
is the real day of the salvation of Hellas ; the 
danger has passed away and thus ends a de- 
cennium of Greek history which far surpasses 
all its previous periods in events of an extra- 
ordinary nature and of momentous results. 



AFTER THE PERSIAN WARS. 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR, 431-404. 

The General Cause. — During the great 
struggle with Persia, Sparta, though she dealt 
the death-blow at Plataeae, liad been slow and 
untrustworthy as the leader of Greece. To 
Athens, which had displayed the greatest 
courage and enterprise, that war gave politi- 
cal supremacy. Fifty years after the battle 
of Plataeae, Athens was the mistress of more 
than a thousand miles of coast along Asia 
Minor ; she held as dependencies more than 
forty islands ; she controlled the straits between 
Europe and Asia ; her fleets ranged the Med- 
iterranean and the Black Sea uncontrolled ; 
she had monopolized the trade of all tlie ad- 
joining countries ; her magazines were full of 
the most valuable objects of commerce. From 
the ashes of the Persian fire Athens had risen 
up so supremely beautiful that her temples, 
her statues, her works of art, in their exquisite 
perfection, have since had no parallel in the 
world. 

But her very prosperity made her arrogant, 
haughty, and tyrannical, which estranged her 
allies, and made her enemies bold to attack 
her. This was the real cause of the Pelopon- 
nesian war (431-404), Though in the main a 
war for supremacy between the two great 
powers of Greece, Athens, and Sparta, it was 
also, to a certain extent, a struggle of princi- 
ples, and likewise, though to a lesser extent, 
a war of races. 

Speaking generally, the Ionian Greeks were 
banded together on the one side, and made 
common cause with the Athenians ; while the 
Dorian Greeks, with a few remarkable excep- 
tions, gave their aid to the Spartans. But 
political sympathy determined, to a greater 
degree than race, the side to which each state 
should attach itself. Athens and Sparta were 
respectively, in the eyes of the Greeks, the 
representatives of the two principles of de- 
mocracy and oligarchy ; and it was felt that 
according as the one or the other prepon- 
derated the cause of oligarchical or democrat- 
ical srovernment was in the ascendant. 



The Immediate Causes of Hostilities. — 

Epidamnus (Plate VTII.), a colony of Corcyra, 
being hard pressed by her banished nobles, 
and having applied in vain to Corcyra for 
assistance, had admitted within her walls a 
body of Corinthian troops. Hence the war 
between Corcyra and Corinth. The Cor- 
cyraeans, knowing they were no match for the 
Corinthians, conclude an alliance with the 
Athenians, who, through this alliance extend 
their authority to the coasts of the Ionian 
Sea, hitherto the exclusive domain of the 
Corinthian merchants. 

A second offence was offered by the Atheni- 
ans to the Corinthians, by the treatment of the 
Corinthian colony of Potidaea. (See Plate 
VIII.) The Potidaeans, in disgust at a com- 
mand issued by the Athenians, that they should 
pull down the walls of their city, had revolted 
from Athens. Although supported by Cor- 
inth, they were conquered. 

At a congress of the Peloponnesian powers, 
held at Sparta by desire of the Corinthians, 
war against Athens was resolved upon, princi- 
pally at the instigation of the Corinthians. 

The Ten Years' War. — The war com- 
menced with the invasion of Attica by the 
Peloponnesians under Archidamus, which was 
regularly repeated every year ; the Athenians 
making reprisals by sending a fleet to ravage 
the coasts of Peloponnesus. The inhabitants 
of Attica, by the advice of Pericles, sought 
refuge within the walls of the city, where, in 
consequence of overcrowding, broke out the 
terrible plague so ably described by Thucyd- 
ides, the contemporary historian of this war 
(B. ii., ch. 47-52). Among its numerous vic- 
tims was the great Pericles (439 B.C.), after 
whose death the Athenian democracy degen- 
erated into an unbridled oligarchy. 

Neither party obtaining any decided advan- 
tage, and the generals of either side having 
fallen at Amphipolis (422), a truce for fifty 
years was negotiated by Nicias (421). 

The Sicilian Expedition. — The Athenians 
had for some time been interfering in the af- 
fairs of the Greek cities in Sicily, and in 416 



21 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WaK. 



B.C. the city of Egcsta applied to them for help 
against Seliiuis and Syracuse, the great Doric 
towns of the West. (See Plate XIV.) 

Alcibiades persuaded them to grant the 
desired assistance, and send to Sicily a fleet 
of 134 ships under himself, Nicias, and La- 
machus. After the occupation of tlie Sicilian 
towns of Naxos and Catana, Alcibiades was 
recalled to answer a charge of participation 
in a sacrilege. He escaped to Argos, but was 
condemned to death in his absence, and his 
property was confiscated. The expedition, 
having now lost the only man who could have 
made it a success, was doomed to be a failure. 
Lamachus died in 414, and Nicias, a sluggish 
old man, was not able to cope with the diffi- 
culties. At the advice of Alcibiades, now the 
implacable enemy of Athens, the Spartans 
sent a small fleet under Gylippus to the assist- 
ance of Syracuse. The Athenians, although 
reinforced by seventy-three ships under De- 
mosthenes, were not only unable to take the 
city, but suffered terribly from sickness and 
want. Finally abandoning their fleet, and try- 
ing to retreat by land, they were overtaken 
and partly killed, partly captured. Nicias and 
Demosthenes were executed in Syracuse, and 
7,000 prisoners were sent to the quarries. 

By the advice of Alcibiades the Spartans 
occupied the village of Decelea, in Attica ; the 
closing years of the war are, therefore, known 
as : 

The Decelean War. — The ruin of the 
Sicilian expedition was one of the greatest 
calamities that ever befel any nation. If the 
Spartans had acted with energy they might 
have crushed Athens at once, but they missed 
their opportunity, and Athens, powerful in 



herself, when necessity armed all her citizens^ 
held out till the seventh year. At length in- 
ternal factions impaired the strength of the 
state ; popular orators excited the jealousy of 
the multitude, suspicions and assassinations 
impeded and disgraced the government. Al- 
cibiades, who (June, 408) had been recalled, 
and had rendered essential services to his 
country, was a second time driven into exile 
(407) with several able generals, while others 
were put to death. 

After this act of folly, the unskilfulness and 
imprudence of the commander of the Athenian 
fleet stationed near ^Egos Potamos (on the 
Hellespont ; see Plate VIII.) afforded a vic- 
tory to the Spartan Lysander (404) by which 
the last resource of Athens, her fleet, was 
a second time destroyed. Then the enemy 
appeared in the Piraeus ; the people made a 
courageous resistance ; and it was only the 
extremity of famine that forced Athens to de- 
mand peace of Sparta. 

Fall of Athens, — The Spartans held a 
council of all the confederates, who, after 
twenty-seven years of warfare, had destroyed 
the Empire of Athens. On this occasion the 
Boeotians and Corinthians insisted that the 
city should be burned and all the people sold 
into slavery. But Sparta resolved that she 
never would suffer a city to be destroyed by 
the hands of Hellenes which had acted so 
noble a part in the defence of their common 
country. Athens ceased to be a political 
power, but destroyed she was not. On the 
contrary, the groves of the Lyceum and the 
Academy were the seat of a more glorious 
empire than the fate of arms can bestow or 
take away. 



PERSIA AND HELLAS. 



FROM THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS, IN 480 

B.C., TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER 

THE GREAT, 323 B C. 

Persia After 480 B.C. — Xerxes I. survived 
the battle of Salamis almost fifteen years, dur- 
ing which time the Persians were forced by the 
Greeks wholly to withdraw from Europe. 

The islands of the ^gaean, the Greek col- 
onies of Asia Minor, the coasts of Thrace, and 
the command of the Hellespont were one by 
one wrested from the Great King by Athenian 
-skill and enterprise. 

For twelve years no Persian fleet ventured 
to dispute with them the sovereignty of the 
seas, and when at last (466 B.C.) a nav^al force 



was collected to protect Cilicia and Cyprus 
it was defeated and destroyed by Cimon at the 
Eurymedon (Plate XI. 2). 

Artaxerxes I. — Soon after this (465) Xerxes 
died and was succeeded by his youngest son 
Artaxerxes I., a mild prince, who ruled nearly 
forty years. He was forced (449) to acknowl- 
edge the independence of the Asiatic Greeks. 
The Greek cities ceded by this treaty (the 
peace of Callias) to the Athenian confederacy 
included all those from the mouth of the Hel- 
lespont to Phaselis in Lycia, but did not in- 
clude the cities on the shore of the Black Sea. 

The prestige of the central government 
gradually weakened, and when he died (in 425 



22 



THE AKABASTS. — SPARTA AND THEBES. 



B.C.) it seemed for a moment as if the empire 
was doomed to destruction. 

The Children of Artaxerxes. — He was 
succeeded by his only legitimate son Xerxes 
II., who, after a reign of forty-five days, was 
assassinated by his half brother Sogdianus, 
who in his turn, after a reign of twenty-eight 
weeks, was murdered by another brother 
Ochus. 

This Ochus was married to his half-sister, 
Parysatis, a daughter of Artaxerxes I., and 
took the name of Darius II. His disastrous 
reign lasted nineteen years. Revolt succeeded 
revolt, and though most of the insurrections 
were quelled, it was at the cost of what re- 
mained of Persian honor and self-respect. 

Egypt drove out the Persians and was able 
to retain its independence for nearly sixty 
years (405-346 b.c). It was some compensa- 
tion for this loss that, in consequence of the 
Athenian disasters in Sicily, the authority of 
the Great King w^as once more established 
over the Greek cities in Asia Minor. Persia 
invited the Spartans to Asia, and by the trea- 
ties w^iich she concluded with them, and the 
aid which she gave them, reacquired without 
a struggle all tlie Greek cities of the coast. 
It was her policy, however, not to depress 
Athens too much, a policy which was steadily 
pursued till the personal ambition of the 
younger Cyrus caused a departure from the 
line dictated by prudence. 

Cyrus Minor. — When Darius II. died, in 
404 B.C., two sons survived him, the elder, 
Artaxerxes, the younger, Cyrus. Cyrus had 
hoped that, through the influence of his 
mother, Parysatis, he might obtain the throne 
on the plea that he was the eldest son born 
during his father's reign. Angry at the fail- 
ure of his hopes, he grew angrier still when 
Tissaphernes charged him with a plot for his 
brother's assassination. It would have cost 
him his life, but for the intercession of Parys- 
atis, who not only saved him from an igno- 
minious death, but also obtained for him his 
former satrapy of Asia Minor. 

Yet, his brother's clemency entirely failed to 
conciliate him. For on his return to Sardes 
he devoted himself solely to the arduous task 
of dethroning his brother. Under various 
pretences he enlisted large bodies of Greeks, 
whose pre-eminent superiority over his own 
countrymen he had early recognized. There 
were many just at this time who had grown 
up during the long Peloponnesian war who 
were only acquainted with arms, and who 
were the first " soldiers," properly so-called, as 
they enlisted for hire : solidus, a piece of money. 

The Anabasis. — In the spring of 401 b.c. 
Cyrus broke up from Sardes with 100,000 



Asiatics and nearly 13,000 Greeks, giving out 
that the expedition w\as directed against the 
mutinous mountaineers of Pisidia (see march 
on Map XI. 2). Passing without opposition 
through the Cilician gates they arrived at 
Tarsus, from whence they marched to Thap- 
sacus on the Euphrates, where the real object 
of the expedition was disclosed. About six 
months after their departure from Sardes, they 
reached the fertile plains of Babylonia. At 
Cunaxa, near Babylon, a battle was fought 
which made an end to Cyrus's life and the 
civil war." The retreat of the remnant of the 
Greeks under Xenophon in 400 B.C. {The Re- 
treat of the Ten Thousand) became one of the 
great feats of history. The story of this march 
tlirough snow, over rugged mountains, and 
across rapid currents, is told in the Anabasis, 
the principal work of Xenophon, which de- 
scribes the retreat from Cunaxa to the Pontic 
coast. 

Rivalry between Sparta and Thebes. — 
The greater part of those who returned 
with Xenophon entered the service of Sparta, 
who led them afresh into Asia Minor, and 
under the leadership of Agesilaus made the 
Persians tremble for their dominion. Artax- 
erxes II. protected himself by large sums of 
gold, by means of w^iich he excited internal 
commotions in Greece, and obliged the Spar- 
tans to recall Agesilaus. 

Sparta, having lost the mastery of the sea, 
was glad to conclude a peace with Persia which 
should give her the undisputed mastery in 
Greece (387 B.C.). The peace of Antalcidas 
was glorious for Persia which got the Greek 
cities in Asia ; the Persian King became su- 
preme arbiter in the affairs of Greece, but del- 
egated to Sparta the power of preserving order 
among the Greek cantons. The Spartans 
were now the absolute masters of Greece. 

But it was soon discovered that, instead of 
the freedom promised by them, only another 
Empire had been established, and the many 
oppressions which the allies had to undergo 
were rendered still more intolerable by the 
overweening pride and harshness of the Spar- 
tan commanders. At this juncture Epami- 
nondas arose at Thebes. In the confidence of 
peace a Spartan general had gained posses- 
sion of the Theban citadel. The seizure was 
declared unjust at Sparta, but nevertheless 
Sparta had kept it. Those who denounced 
the outrage were simply exiled from Thebes. 
These exiles, led by Pelopidas, delivered their 
country from the Spartans. From that mo- 
ment the Thebans sought to destroy Sparta. 
They would not have obtained this object by 
the numerical force of their armies, if Epami- 
nondas had not been able to conquer them by 



23 



500—333 B. C. 



PLATE XI. 




Suuthcrs, Seryaaaii Co., Eogr'a and Pr's. N.Xi 



MACEDONIAN SUPEEMACY. 



his superior strategy. At Leuctra (371 b.c.) 
they lost forever the prize of the Peloponne- 
sian war — the sovereignty of Greece. A second 
victory at Mantinea completed the ruin of the 
Spartan power, but Epaminondas was killed 
(362 B.C.). It was Epaminondas who had 
raised Thebes to its great power ; there was 
no one like him left in Thebes, and after his 
death its authority quickly passed away. 

Macedonian Supremacy. — But Epami- 
nondas had left behind an apt pupil in the per- 
son of the young King of Macedonia (see 
Plate VIII.), who had been educated by him 
while he resided as an hostage at Thebes. With 
the knowledge eagerly imbibed from Epami- 
nondas, Philip of Macedon combined what the 
latter wanted, namely, the power of a monarch 
and the boldness of an enterprising conqueror. 
Although the people of Macedonia were 
counted as barbarians, the royal family were 
Greeks from Argos, and they did much to in- 
troduce Greek civilization among their sub- 
jects. Philip soon found an opportunity of 
interfering in the affairs of Greece, by profess- 
ing to defend the temple of Apollo, at Del- 
phi, which had been robbed by the Phocians. 
After having conquered the Phocians, he oc- 
cupied Delphi, and gave the temple back to 
its managers. His reward was great. The 
votes which the Phocians had had in the 
Amphictyonic Council were transferred to 
Philip, and he was given the right of presid- 
ing at the Pythian games. He was now the 
acknowledged champion of the god Apollo, 
and had gained the right of interfering in 
Greek affairs whenever he could make out 
that any wrong had been done to the god or 
his temple (346 B.C.). Having thus gained ad- 
mittance as a member of the Hellenic Con- 
federacy, he made use of this position to unite 
all the Greek states under his leadership, in or- 
der to absorb them in Macedonia. Athens at 
length took arms in the cause of expiring in- 
dependence. The decisive battle was fought 
at Chaeronea {^3^ B.C.). The victory re- 
mained to Philip, who, soon after, assembled 
a congress at Corinth, and was named Gen- 
eral of the Confederate Greeks in the war to 
be undertaken against Persia. But in 336 B.C. 
he was assassinated at ^gae, and that war was 
reserved for his greater son, Alexander. 

Alexander was scarcely twenty years old 
when he ascended the throne, and one of the 
first acts of his reign was to force the Greeks 
to choose him as commander-in-chief of the 
forces destined to act against Persia. 

Condition of Persia in 336 B.C. — Artax- 
erxes II. had left to his son and successor, 
Artaxerxes III., a decaying empire. He was 
a prince of more vigor and spirit than any 



monarch since Darius Hystaspes, and the 
power, reputation, and general prosperity of 
the empire were greatly advanced during his 
reign. But he was poisoned {;^$8 B.C.) by his 
vizier, Bogoas, who, after murdering all his 
brothers, raised Arses, youngest son of Artax- 
erxes HI., to the throne. 

Two years later Arses, with all his children, 
was murdered by Bogoas, who now placed on 
the throne a personal friend of his, Codoman- 
nus, who took the name of Darius HI. {^^6 

B.C.). 

Superior, morally, to the greater number of 
his predecessors, Darius HI. did not possess 
sufficient intellectual ability to enable him to 
grapple with the difficulties of the circum- 
stances in which he was placed. 

The Macedonian invasion of Asia, which 
had commenced before he mounted the 
throne, failed to alarm him as it ought to 
have done, and he took no sufficient meas- 
ures to guard his empire against the attack 
with which it was threatened. 

The Greek Invasion of Asia. — Alexan- 
der, on coming to the throne, found every- 
thing ready for the invasion of Persia. The 
army, though not numbering above 40,000 
men, comprised troops and appliances for 
every kind of service. Led by Alexander, 
it was such a force as there had never yet 
been in history, and could, probably, without 
much difficulty, have conquered the entire 
world. 

This remarkable army crossed the Helles- 
pont in the spring of 334 B.C. The battle near 
the Granicus (May, 334 B.C.) placed Asia Minor 
at his feet, and the death of Memnon, the only 
Persian general equal to the task of checking 
him, allowed him to advance into the heart of 
Persia. The Persian army was well-nigh an- 
nihilated in the pass of Issus (November, ^;^;^ 

B.C.). 

Darius HI. retreated across the Euphrates, 
but instead of pursuing him, Alexander turned 
south into Phoenicia. Damascus was taken, 
and the Phoenician seaports, except Tyre, sur- 
rendered without a blow. 

This caused the Phoenician fleet employed 
by the Persians to break up, and the best 
chance of the Persians against Alexander was 
now gone. Tyre was besieged and captured. 
Egypt hailed him as a deliverer from the Per- 
sians. Here he founded the city of Alexandria 
at the western mouth of the Nile, the future 
rival of Rome. At length (331 B.C.) the deci- 
sive moment came. 

A new army had been collected by the Per- 
sian king from his eastern dominions, and 
was strongly posted about thirty miles from 
the site of Nineveh, awaiting Alexander's at- 



24 



ALEXANDER THE nREAT. 



tack. The battle was fought in October, at 
Gaugamela, twenty miles distant from Arbela, 
and ended with the total rout of the Persian 
host, the flight of Darius, and the fall of his 
Empire. 

Alexander the Great. — Alexander returned 
in triumphal progress to Babylon, and went 
from thence in imperial pomp to Susa. Here 
he gave his army a rest, and carried out one 
part of his great scheme for the permanent 
union of the conquerors and the conquered by 
intermarriage. Darius was then pursued, first 
to Ecbatana, next to Rhagae, and Bactria, 
where the hapless monarch was seized and 
finally murdered by the satrap Bessus. 

The mysterious East still alluring him on, 
Alexander, exploring, conquering, and found- 
ing cities, at last reached the river Hyphasis 
(327 B.c ), where his army refused to proceed 
farther in the unknown regions. But instead 
of retracing his steps he built vessels and de- 
scended the Indus, and thus arrived at the In- 
dian Ocean. 

From here the fleet, under Nearchus, sailed 
through the Persian Gulf to the mouth of the 
Euphrates and Tigris, while Alexander him- 
self accompanied the bulk of the army through 
the Iranian deserts to Babylon, which he made 
the capital of his Empire, which now reached 
from the Adriatic to the Indus, and from the 
steppes of Central Asia to the Indian Ocean. 
In the midst of the immense labors of regula- 
ting this Empire he perished (323 B.C.), either 
by poison or by intemperance, having scarcely 
completed his thirty-second year. His chil- 
dren being yet infants, his chief generals pro- 
vided each for himself, and only thought of 
conciliating the greedy soldiery. 

HELLAS AND WESTERN ASIA AFTER THE 
DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

The Civil Wars. — For a few brief years a 
Greek ruler had held in his hand the whole 
intellectual vigor of the Hellenic race, com- 
bined with the whole material resources of 
the East. After his death, the work to which 
his life had been devoted, the establishment of 
Hellenism in the East, was by no means de- 
stroyed ; but his Empire had barely been 
united when it was again dismembered, and 
amid the constant quarrels of the different 
states that were formed out of its ruins, the 
diffusion of Greek culture in the East was 
prosecuted on a reduced scale. 

Eight years after the death of Alexander, 
Antigonus endeavored to bring the whole Em- 
pire under his sceptre. The result of this was 
a long and bloody war (315-301) in the course 
of which every member of the family of Alex- 



ander perished. It was ended by the battle ol 
Ipsus (in Phrygia) in which Antigonus fell. 

The conquerors, Seleucus and Lysimachus, 
divided the dominions of Alexander afresh. 
As was natural, they took to themselves the 
lion's share. The greater part of Asia Minor 
was made over to Lysimachus, and formed 
the short-lived kingdom of Thrace (until 281 
B.C.). Seleucus, already the Lord of the coun- 
tries between the Indus and the Euphrates, re- 
ceived Cappadocia, Phrygia, Upper Syria, and 
Northern Mesopotamia. Cilicia was given 
to Cassander's brother Pleistarchus. Cas- 
sander, who ruled over Macedonia and Greece, 
did not receive any additions to his dominions, 
neither did Ptolemy, the King of Egypt. The 
son of the vanquished Antigonus, Demetrius, 
retained nothing but the island of Cyprus. It 
was reconquered, however, by Ptolemy, in 
293 B.C. From this time Cyprus remained in 
undisputed possession of the Egyptian crown. 

The Division of 301. — Thus, after the 
battle of Ipsus, the Empire of Alexander had 
split up into seven independent states, of de- 
cidedly Hellenistic character, in which Greek 
was the language of the government, of in- 
scriptions and coinage, and in some of which 
Greek art, literature, and learning reached a 
high development. These seven states were 
(see Plate XII.) : 

I. Syria under the Seleucidae. Capital at 
first, Seleucia on the Tigris, afterward An- 
tiochia on the Orontes. 

II. Egypt under the Ptolemies or Lagidae. 
Capital, Alexandria. 

III. Thrace under Lysimachus. Capital, 
Lysimacheia on the neck of the Thracian 
Chersonnese. 

IV. Macedonia under Cassander. Capital, 
Pella. 

V. The independent state of Rhodes. Cap- 
ital, Rhodes. (Plate XII.). 

VI. Cilicia under Pleistarchus, Cassander's 
brother. Capital, Tarsus. 

VII. Cyprus under Demetrius, the son of 
Antigonus. Capital. Salamis. 

The Hellenic States After 190.— In the 
course of time many changes were introduced 
until 190 B.C. there remained the following 
Hellenic states : 

MACEDONIA {capital, PELLA), a military 
state, compact in form, and with its finances 
in good order. Greece was in general de- 
pendent on it, and its towns received Mace- 
donian garrisons ; especially the three im- 
portant fortresses of Demetrias, in Magnesia, 
Chalcis, in Euboea, and Corinth, on the Isth- 
mus, " the three fetters of the Hell e ties. " B u t t he 
strength of the state lay, above all, in its orig- 
inal domain, the province of Macedonia. 



25 



THE HELLENIC STATES. 



In no country were the changes produced | LEUC I D^E {capital, ANTIOCHIA, on the 

Oroutes), was nothing but Persia superficially 
remodelled and Hellenized ; a rather loose ag- 
gregate of states in various degrees of depend- 
ence of insubordinate satrapies, and of half- 
free Greek cities. 

In most respects this vast and ill-compacted 
empire formed a marked contrast to Egypt. 
Seleucus and his successors never succeeded, 
like the Ptolemies, in conciliating the national 
and religious prejudices of the races over 
which they ruled. 

The rheans by which they so long retained 
their sway in the midst of hostile populations 
were the following: 

The Seleucidae were the heirs of the enor- 
mous treasures of gold and silver, the hoarded 
results of Alexander's exactions. These treas- 
ures drew over into Asia a constant stream of 
soldiers of fortune, who were unscrupulous in- 
deed, but made, under good generals, fair sol- 
diers ; and the Seleucidae knew how to attach 
them to their service. 

But the main source of the Greek power 
throughout Asia was in the Greek cities, 
founded everywhere in extraordinary numbers 
by Alexander and his successors. 

A series of small independent states, stretch- 
ing from the southern end of the Caspian Sea 
to the Hellespont, filled the whole of north- 
ern Asia Minor. The most characteristic 
among them was Atropatene, the true asy- 
lum of ancient Persian manners, over which 
the expedition of Alexander had swept with- 
out leaving a trace. 

After the Gauls had vacated Macedonia, 
three of their tribes had crossed over at By- 
zantiumnnto Asia, and founded (278 b.c.) the 
Gallo-Greek kingdom of Galatia, in the heart 
of Phrygia. They neither abandoned their 
native language nor manners, neither their 
constitution nor their trade as freebooters. 

In consequence of bold and successful meas- 
ures of opposition to these Gallic hordes At- 
TALUS, a wealthy citizen of Pergamus, re- 
ceived the royal title from his native city and 
bequeathed it to his posterity. This new court 
was in miniature what that of Alexandria was 
on a grand scale. Both in political skill and 
in love of letters, the kings of Pergamon were 
not inferior to the Ptolemies. All the princes 
of this dynasty were literary. 



by Alexander more striking than here. Before 
his and his father's time, Macedonia was a king- 
dom of the old Ho7neric type. Even Philip 
never placed his effigy on his coins, nor called 
himself king. But the Antigenic princes wore 
the diadem, were surrounded by a court, and 
were the centre of a bureaucratic and military 
system. They regarded their subjects as taxa- 
ble property, and as the material for the man- 
ufacture of armies. And the people themselves 
were sadly fallen and diminished. For all the 
youth and energy of the country flowed in a 
never-ceasing stream toward the East, which 
led to the most disastrous results. 

About 280 B.C. a large body of Gauls poured 
through the passes of the Balkan, and devas- 
tated the country as far as Delphi. There 
the flood had spent its fury and ebbed. As it 
retired, it left Macedonia and Greece exhausted 
and depopulated, but not demoralized. Grad- 
ually the country recovered, and about 200 
B.C. Macedonia had become once more a great 
power. 

EGYPT, or, THE EMPIRE OF THE 
PTOLEMIES {capital, ALEXANDRIA), 
formed a consolidated and united state, in 
which the Intel igent statecraft of the first 
Ptolemies, skilfully availing itself of ancient, 
national, and religious precedent, had estab- 
lished an absolute government, at the head of 
which stood the King. His word was law 
throughout the length and breadth of the land. 
Around him was a military court with innu- 
merable grades of honor and distinction. 

All the higher honors were in the hands of 
Macedonians and Greeks, the leaders of the 
hired troops, the physical force of the Egyp- 
tian realm. The native Egyptians seem to have 
accepted calmly a position of inferiority. They 
had long been unused to independence, and 
the respect paid to their laws and religion by 
their new masters made them disposed cheer- 
fully to submit to their supremacy and protec- 
tion. 

The commerce, the wealth, and the popula- 
tion of Egypt advanced at a wonderful pace 
under this wise administration, so that the 
armies, the ships, the riches, the literary and 
artistic treasures of Egypt became the won- 
der of the world. 

ASIA, or, THE EMPIRE OF THE SE- 



26 



301—190 AND 74-63 B. C 



PLATE XII. 




StT«tkera, Sarvoaa.&.Ce^Bugr'.t.aud Fr'b N.Xj 



THE HISTORY OF ROME. 



UNTIL THE BURNING OF ROME BY THE CELTS. 



SOURCES OF ROMAN HISTORY. 

What is called the early history of Rome is, 
to a great extent, fabulous. So much is cer- 
tain, that more than three hundred and sixty 
years after the alleged foundation of Rome 
the public records were destroyed by the Celts, 
and that the oldest annals of the common- 
wealtli were compiled more than a century 
and a half after the destruction of the records. 

These oldest Roman annalists were Fabius 
Pictor and Cincius Alimentus. They wrote 
not in Latin, but in Greek, evidently because 
the Latin language in their time seemed not 
sufficiently cultivated for literary composition 
and because they had before their eyes as 
models the great historians of Greece. But 
contemporaneously with them two poets, 
Naevius and Ennius, moulded the same mate- 
rials into Latin epic poems. The first who ap- 
plied the Latin language to historical compo- 
sition in prose was Marcus Porcius Cato. 

He wrote the history of his own time (second 
century B.C.), but prefixed several chapters on 
the history of the earlier ages, including there- 
in accounts of the origin of other Italian cities 
besides Rome, whence the title of the book 
" Origines " was derived. 

What were the sources from which these his- 
torians derived the knowledge of events which 
had happened centuries before their birth ? 

First and foremost, they w^ere thrown back 
upon ordinary oral tradition. The familiarity 
with the deeds of their ancestors was greatly 
facilitated in Rome by the fixity of the Roman 
families, by the composition of the senate, and 
by the organization of the priestly bodies. 

But the head of the pontifical corporation 
(the Pontifex Maximus) also wrote down every 
year the most remarkable events and pub- 
lished them on wooden tablets, which were 
preserved in the Regia, the official dwelling of 
the chief-pontiff. Thus a meagre, but at any 
rate a trustworthy abstract of the most striking 



events must have been compiled, whence an- 
nalists could draw their information. 



THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE. 

Four groups of nations are to be regarded 
as having been original dwellers in Italy be- 
fore the Greeks came to the peninsula by sea 
in the South and the Celts by land in the 
North. 

I. On the Adriatic coast we find various II- 
lyrian tribes. 

II. On the northwestern coast Ligurian 
tribes. 

III. The Etruscans or Ras had their first 
abode in Italy in the valley of the Po, whence 
they were driven by Celts to the land which 
still bears their name. Another Tuscan league 
existed in Campania. 

IV. The remaining part of Italy was occu- 
pied by a number of tribes closely connected 
with one another in language and customs. 
These w^ere the Umbri, Sabini, and Latini. 
The nations of this group are clearly to be re- 
garded as having been the last to come into 
the peninsula by land, before the dawn of his- 
tory. Their movement southward did not 
come to an end until about 400 b.c, at the time 
of the conquest of Campania, Lucania, and 
Bruttium by the Samnites. 

Its further development is to be seen in the 
political annexation and linguistic assimila- 
tion, first of the whole of Italy, then of West- 
ern and Central Europe, by one of its tribes, 
which was originally confined to very narrow 
borders, the Latins. 

Thirty cantons formed the Latin league, the 
political centre of which was the town of 
Alba. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME. 

Situation. — In the northwestern part of 
Latium, about fourteen miles up from the 
mouth of the river Tiber, arose, on'the Palatine 



27 



PLATE Xlll. 



LATIUM 

AXD ITS 

NEIGHBORS. 




NEIGHBORHOOD OF ROME 

100 A.D. 



Xucus Jovis In ligctis 
Castrum Inuts} 



Struthers. Servoss i Co., Engr's »nd Pr's, N.Y, 



THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME. 



hill, at a wholly unknown time and under 
wholly unknown circumstances, ROME. It 
was a Latin settlement, and the language of 
Rome has retained forever after the name of 
Latin, testifying thereby the original identity 
of race. 

When the Sabines invaded Latium they 
made permanent settlements between the 
Tiber and Anio, and also occupied the Capito- 
line and Quirinal hills in the immediate vicin- 
ity of Palatine Rome. 

At first harassing each other in deadly strife, 
they soon saw that it would be more advan- 
tageous to live in peace and friendship. Ac- 
cordingly the Latins and Sabines made an 
international alliance, which proved to be the 
condition of the future greatness of Rome. 
This alliance soon developed into a federal 
state. The free will and independence of the 
allies was bound up in the national will, de- 
clared by the decisions of a common senate 
and a popular assembly. 

The earliest boundary of this community 
were in the landward direction, about five 
miles distant from the town, and it was only 
toward the coast that they extended as far as 
the mouth of the Tiber. 

Oldest Constitution. — The head of this 
miniature state was a king, elected for life, and 
combining the functions of high priest with 
those of judge and military leader, but these old- 
est kings of Rome were pre-eminently priests. 
How long this kind of priest-kingship lasted 
is impossible to tell. It was followed by a 
military monarchy, founded by Etruscan con- 
querors, which abolished the old sacerdotal 
constitution, raised the military and civil 
power over that of the priestly order, consoli- 
dated and strengthened the state, and thus in- 
tensified the preponderance of Rome over the 
tribes which surrounded her. It seems to have 
been at the expense of these neighbors that 
the earliest extensions of the Roman territory 
took place. 

The Latin communities on the Upper Tiber 
and between the Tiber and Arno appear to 
have forfeited their independence in very 
early times. 

By these conquests the Roman territory was 
probably extended to about one hundred and 
ninety square miles. Another very early 
achievement of the Roman arms was the con- 
quest and destruction of Alba, the ancient sa- 
cred metropolis of Latium. Rome gained, in 
consequence of that event, the right to pre- 
side at the Latin festival — a right which was 
the basis of the hegemony of Rome over the 
whole Latin confederacy. 

Patricians and Plebeians. — The Roman 
people were not a homogeneous mass. The 



patricians formed the ruling body. They were 
the citizens. By the side of them there existed, 
from the earliest times, a subordinate class 
called plebeians, enjoying, indeed, the name 
of Roman citizens, and entitled to the protec- 
tion of life and property, but still excluded 
from any share in the government. 

They formed a distinct body, a subject pop- 
ulation bound to bear the burdens of the state 
without sharing in its government. They had 
an organization of their own, the " assembly of 
the tribes " (comitia tributa), in which were 
chosen plebeian magistrates {tribimes a?id cediles) 
to regulate their affairs. A certain number of 
the plebeians were called clients {liste7iers\ and 
were attached as hereditary dependents to cer- 
tain patrician families. Each patrician had 
a number, of whom he was called the patron^ 
and of whom he was the legal protector, 
while in return they paid him fixed dues and 
services. 

The number of these plebeians was continu- 
ally augmented by three causes : 

I St, By the Latins, who, by the provisions 
of the Latin League, had the right of settling 
at Rome. 

2d, By the conquest of the neighboring 
towns, the greater part of whose population 
was transferred to Rome. 

3d, The burdens of the war fell exclusively 
on the patricians, while the plebeians shared 
in the result of the victories without having to 
pay for it with their blood. 

Servius TuUius. — The first step toward the 
amalgamation of these two parts of the Roman 
people was made by the constitution which 
bears the name of Servius Tullius, which, in- 
stead of imposing the duty of military service 
on the citizens as such, laid it upon the pos- 
sessors of land, whether they were citizens or 
plebeians. 

Service in the army was changed from a personal 
burden into a burden of prope?'ty. The whole 
body of freeholders, who from their seven- 
teenth to their sixtieth year were under obliga- 
tion of military service, were divided, according 
to the size of their farms, into five summonings 
{classes). The sixth class contained those who 
owned no property whatever {proletarii). They 
had to supply workmen and musicians for the 
army as well as a number of substitutes, who 
marched with the army unarmed, and when 
vacancies occurred took their places in the 
ranks, equipped with the armor of the sick or 
the fallen. These six classes formed the in- 
fantry. For the cavalry they chose the most 
opulent and considerable proprietors. It con- 
sisted of 1,800 horse or 18 centuriae (100 men 
forming a centuria). 
was as follows: 



Hence the arrangement 



28 



THE POLITICAL KEVOLUTION. 



II. Infantry divided 
into i68 centuriae .... 



I. Cavalry, divided into i8 centuriae. 

' ist class containing 
80 centuriae. 
2d class containing 

20 centuriae. 
3d class containing 

20 centuriae. 
4th class containing 

20 centuriae. 
5th class containing 
28 centuriae. 
III. Camp followers, divided into 7 centuriae. 
Total, 193 centuriae or companies. 
As the population increased the number of 
the centuriae was not augmented, but the 
number of persons in each centuria was in- 
creased. Each centuria had one voice in the 
assembled levy of the militia, which was 
called the comitia centuriata {the vieeting of the 
companies). One right was granted to this as- 
sembly, that of assenting to the declaration of an 
aggressive war. Thus was developed by the 
Etruscan kings, out of the old dual community, 
that military organization which was equal to 
the task of making Rome the mistress of Italy 
and of the world. It was also the first step 
toward the equalization of patricians and ple- 
beians. 

THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION OF 510 B.C. 

The Expulsion of the Kings. — The Ser- 
vian constitution had greatly curtailed the in- 
fluence of the patricians, who became more 
and more dissatisfied with the Etruscan kings. 
The plebeians, on the other hand, were well 
disposed loward them, because they were their 
natural protectors. But at length the politi- 
cal opposition of the patricians, backed by na- 
tional animosity throughout the whole of 
Latium, triumphed. In all the Latin towns 
the old Latin population rose against the 
Etruscan conquerors. They were expelled 
from Rome, which they had made the head of 
Latium. In regaining their independence the 
Romans lost their proud position in Latium, 
and the patricians were even compelled to 
make concessions to the hated plebeians in 
order to reconcile them to the expulsion of the 
Etruscan kings. How long these Etruscans 
had ruled over Rome and Latium we have no 
means of judging. It seems, however, not to 
have continued long enough to change the 
national character or to seriously affect the 
language. 

The New Magistracies. — In the place of 
the expelled Etruscan king two annual rulers, 
chosen from among the patricians, now were 
placed at the head of the Roman commu- 
nity. The one life-king was replaced by two 



year-kings^ who called themselves generals 
{prcBtors)^ or judges {mdices), or simply col- 
leagues (co?tsiiles). The supreme power was 
not intrusted to the two magistrates conjointly, 
but each consul possessed and exercised it for 
himself as fully as it had been possessed and 
exercised by the king. They received the in- 
signia of the royal office and the year was 
henceforth (until 541 a.d.) named after them. 

But whenever it was found that the division 
of authority endangered the national inde- 
pendence, in great emergencies of foreign or 
domestic conflicts, they had recourse to a 
temporary restoration of undivided authority 
by appointing a " master of the people" (magis- 
TER POPULi), or " commander " (dictator). As 
soon as he was nominated all the other mag- 
istrates became legally powerless and entirely 
subject to his authority. 

To him as to the king was assigned a " mas- 
ter of the horse'' (magister equitum). The in- 
tention was that the dictator's authority should 
be distinguished from that of the king only by 
its limitation in point of time, the maximum 
duration of his office being six months. 

Comitia Centuriata. — In order to recon- 
cile the plebeians with this great increase of 
importance of the patricians, from whose 
ranks alone all magistrates were taken, all the 
political prerogatives of the old patrician as- 
sembly (comitia curiata) were now transferred 
to the ^'' assembly of the militia'' (the comitia 
centuriata), which more and more came to be 
regarded as the assembly of the sovereign peo- 
ple. With it rested — 

I. The decision on appeals in criminal 

CASES. 

II. The nomination of magistrates. 

III. The adoption or rejection of laws. 
The Senate. — The official designation of 

the Roman Commonwealth created by the 
revolution of 510 B.C. was S.P.Q.R. (Senatus 
Populusque Romanus). The precedence given 
in this title to the Senate shows that it was in- 
deed the soul of that mighty body. It con- 
tained the heads of the patricians' households, 
the fathers (patres). But only a limited number 
(originally 300) of the fathers had a seat for 
life in the Senate ; hence the Senators were 
addressed patres conscripti (fathers whose names 
7£'ere entered (coNSCRiPTi) on the senatorial lists). 
This Senate had neither executive, nor legisla- 
tive, nor judicial power. It was merely a con- 
sultative body of men picked from the mass 
of the patricians and accustomed to meet 
periodically for the discussion of public 
affairs. It was free to give advice to the mag- 
istrates, when asked for it, but unable either 
to give advice unasked or to enforce its ac 
ceptance. 



29 



THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION. 



THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION OF 493 B.C. 

The Plebeian Revolt. — The revolution 
which overthrew the Etruscan dominion over 
Latium, led, in Rome, to a restoration of the 
rule of the patricians. The plebeians were so 
far from being benefited by it that they had to 
rise in open rebellion to obtain, not equality 
with the patricians ; not a share in the govern- 
ment ; but simple protection from arbitrary 
and illegal treatment. 

A three-fold blow had been struck at the 
plebeians. 

I. They were deprived of the use of the 
ccmmon pasture. 

II. The distributions of land were entirely 
stopped. 

III. They were continually liable to be 
called out for military service. 

When in 495 B.C. the levy was called forth 
for a dangerous war, the plebeians refused to 
obey the command unless their grievances 
were redressed. This was solemnly promised. 
They took their places in the ranks and helped 
to secure the victory. But when peace had 
been made the promises were forgotten. 
The plebeians endured what could not be 
changed. 

But when, in the following year, the war was 
renewed, the consul's word availed no longer. 
It was not till Manius Valerius was nominated 
dictator that the plebeians, from their confi- 
dence in him, were induced to march against 
the enemy. The victory was again with the 
Romans ; but when, after the campaign, the 
dictator would carry out his promises, he was 
prevented by the patricians. The army still 
stood in its array before the gates of the city. 
When the conduct of the patricians became 
known it abandoned its general and its en- 
campment and marched into the district of 
Crubtumerium, between tlie Tiber and tlie Anio. 

Here they occupied a hill, and threatened 
to establish in this, the most fertile part of the 
Roman territory, a new plebeian city. The 
patricians, unable to reduce them by force, 
and seeing that without the plebeians (the 
rank and file of the army) they were utterly 
helpless, gave way ; the dictator negotiated 
an agreement — which was a solemn acknowl- 
edgment on the part of the patricians that the 
old plebeian magistrates (the tribunes and 
aediles) should, under the guarantee of a sa- 
cred law (lex sacrata) have authority to con- 
trol the official acts, even of the patrician 
magistrates. 

The Tribunate. — Every man was liable to 
be called out for military service, and it is 
clear that great injustice might be practised 
by the consuls, if they disregarded the spe- 



cial claims of exemption which individual citi- 
zens might have. In such cases the tribunes 
would interfere, and their interference might 
amount to an inhibition of the whole con- 
scription, so that they might actually veto a 
war, if they were so minded. This power of 
the tribunes was called the " right of protec- 
tion " (jus auxilii). They could claim, and 
did claim, no more. Their sole business was 
to protect plebeians from unjust treatment 
at the hands of patricians. The number of 
the tribunes had been originally two, then 
(after 471) five, and, finally (after 457), ten. 

About this time (493 B.C.) the "■assembly of the 
militia " (comitia centuriata) ceased to be the 
basis on which the army was formed, the con- 
scription being made, not according to classes, 
but according to tribes {wards and district s) 
into which the town and territory were di- 
vided. Each tribe consisted of the people set- 
tled within its boundaries, without regard 
either to descent or to property, and formed 
a military district. During the fifth century 
B.C. there were twenty-one tribes (after 241 
B.C. they numbered thirty-five). On them had 
been based, from time immemorial, a plebeian 
assembly, which chose plebeian magistrates 
(tribuni) called the ^^ assembly of the tribes'* 
(comitia tributa). 

Whereas the comitia curiata had been an 
aristocratic organization, from which the ple- 
beians were excluded, and the comitia centu- 
riata had given a preponderance to wealth, 
the COMITIA tributa were purely democratic. 
Each tribe had one vote, which was decided 
by the majority of voters in the tribe. By the 
treaty on the Sacred Mount \\\q ''^ assembly of 
the tribes'' -wTis first recognized by the patri- 
cians as invested with political rights, for the 
patricians bound themselves to treat the ple- 
beian magistrates (tribuni) elected in those 
" assembly of the tribes " as persons invested 
w^ith public authority. If the comitia centu- 
riata continued to elect the consuls, the co- 
mitia TRIBUTA continued to elect their trib- 
unes, whose authority was now acknowledged 
equally by patricians and plebeians. While 
the COMITIA CENTURIATA remained stationary, 
the COMITIA TRIBUTA Continually extended 
their sphere of action, and under the direc- 
tion of the tribunes, became the moving power 
in the commonwealth to which all progress in 
constitutional and civil law was chiefly due. 

The League of the Three Nations. — The 
same year (493 b.c.) which witnessed the ac- 
knowledgment of the old plebeian magistrates 
by the patricians is marked by the conclusion 
of a treaty between Rome and Latium, in 
which both appear as independent powers. It 
was dictated by the common interests of both. 



30 



THE LEGAL REVOLUTION. 



The Latin towns formed, for Rome, a line of 
fortifications, on the south and east, against 
Volsci and /Equi, and Rome defended for La- 
tium tlie line of the Tiber against the Etrus- 
cans and Sabines, on the western and north- 
ern sides. After 486 the Hernici, who lived 
farther eastward, between the Volsci and 
^qui, joined the league on equal terms. 
This league enabled its members not only 
to maintain, but also to extend on all sides, 
their power. Their conquests were at the ex- 
pense of the Sabines, ^qui, and Volscians. 
The Sabines were soon conquered, but the 
struggle with the ^qui and Volscians lasted 
more than a century. 

The league had also to watch their old 
enemy, the Etruscans. Twelve miles to the 
north of Rome was the powerful Etruscan 
city of Veil. A furious war raged between 
the rivals from 483-474 B.C., at the end of 
which Rome only recovered its ground. After 
an armistice of four hundred months, the war 
was renewed (445 B.C.), and the Romans re- 
covered Fidenae. Another armistice of two 
hundred months was made in 425, on the ex- 
piration of which Rome resolved to end this 
war by the conquest of Veii. It succumbed 
in 396 B.C. to the persevering and heroic energy 
of Marcus Furius Camillus. Veii was de- 
stroyed. The statement that the two bulwarks 
of the Etruscan nation, Melpum and Veii, 
yielded on the same day, the former to the 
Celts, the latter to the Romans, may be 
merely a melancholy legend, but it, at any 
rate, involves a deep historical truth. The 
double assault, on the north and on the south, 
and the fall of the two frontier strongholds, 
were the beginning of the end of the great 
Etruscan nation. 

THE LEGAL REVOLUTION OF 450 B.C. 

The Decemvirs. — The want of any written 
code of laws for the plebeians induced the 
tribune, Caius Terentilius Arsa, to propose a 
commission to prepare such a code. Ten 
years elapsed ere this proposal was carried into 
effect. At length (453 b.c), the preparation of 
a legal code was resolved upon. It was agreed 
that the existing forms of government should 
be suspended, and that in the place of the 
patrician consuls and the plebeian tribunes, ten 
men (decemviri) should be elected. These 
decemvirs, after having been bound not to in- 
fringe the sworn liberties of the commons, 
were clothed for one year with irresponsible 
authority. They made a series of legal pro- 
visions, divided into ten sections, which, after 
they had received the assent of the nation, 
were engraved on ten tables of brass, and 



affixed in the forum to the rostra in front ol 
the senate-house. But as a supplement ap- 
peared necessary, decemvirs were again nom- 
inated in 450. It seems that these second 
decemvirs were opposed to the policy of the 
extreme patrician party, and that they really 
intended to carry out the equalization of the 
laws. In this endeavor they were thwarted by 
the Senate, w4iich compelled them to resign 
before the last two tables were sanctioned. 
The Senate then embodied in the last two 
tables those old prohibitions of inter-marriage 
between patricians and plebeians which were 
so offensive to the latter, and tried to restore 
the old consular government without the 
tribuneship of the people. Hereupon the 
plebeians had recourse to a second secession, 
and did not return to the city until the sacred 
laws and the tribuneship had been restored. 
Thus originated the Law of the XII Tables. 

The Equalization of the Two Orders. — 
The old constitution of 454 b.c. was now re- 
stored again, and with it all the patrician priv- 
ileges, though the time was drawing nigh 
when they were destined to fall one after an- 
other. 

The two fundamental principles of the 
patricians were : 

1. The invalidity of marriage between pa- 
tricians and plebeians. 

2. The incapacity of plebeians to hold public 
offices. 

Both were annulled about 444 B.C. The 
admittance of the plebeians to the higher pub- 
lic offices continued to be refused in name, 
but was conceded to them in reality, although 
in a singular form. 

Every year (from 444-367 b.c.) a law had to 
be passed declaring whether consuls should 
be elected for the succeeding year or not. If 
no consuls were to be elected, their place was 
filled by three military tribunes with consular 
poivers and consular duratioit of office. One of 
the three was intended to discharge the duties 
of chief judge, for which afterward a praetor 
was elected. The patricians reserved to them- 
selves the right of filling this office with one 
of their own number. The other two were to 
be elected indiscriminately from patricians 
and plebeians. 

But now the exclusive possession of the 
supreme magistracy could no longer be de- 
fended ; it seemed advisable to divest it of its 
financial importance, and by means of patrician 
censors {appraisers^ and quaestors {paymasters) 
to keep at least the budget and the state chest 
under the exclusive control of the patricians. 
They succeeded with the censorship, but the 
quaestorship was soon thrown open to the 
plebeians (421 b.c). 



31 



THE SAMNITES. 



Soon after (400, 399, and 396 B.C.), they car- 
ried the election of several plebeian military 
tribunes, and thus for the tirst time realized 
the privilege which they had won about half 
a century before. They never again lost the 
ground thus gained, and in less than ten years 
more (388 B.C.) they reached at last the long 
desired end of political equality, by the Licin- 
ian laws, which gave them a share in the 
consulship. However, before this great con- 
stitutional change took place, Rome passed 
through a terrible danger which threatened it 
with total dissolution. 

THE BURNING OF ROME. 
The fall of Melpum had given the Celts 
the whole left bank of the Po, and Celtic 
swarms rapidly overflowed Northern Italy and 
besieged Clusium. So humbled were the 
Etruscans that they invoked help from their 
bitter enemies, the Romans. The Romans de- 
clined to send assistance, but despatched en- 
voys, who sought to impose upon the Celts by 



haughty language. When this failed, they 
thought they might with impunity violate the 
law of nations in dealing with barbarians. 
They fought in the rank of the Clusines, and 
a Gallic officer was stabbed by a Roman en- 
voy. Redress being refused, the Celts broke 
up the siege of Clusium and marched on 
Rome. At the AUia (July i8th, 390 b.c), they 
met the Roman army, which was not only 
totally defeated, but the greater portion was 
carried to the right bank of the Tiber. The 
capital was thus left to the mercy of the in- 
vaders, who marched through the open gates 
into Rome. After murdering all they m»t 
with, they burned the city (390 B.C.). The 
Celts remained for seven months beneath the 
rock of the capitol, when they received infor- 
mation as to the Veneti having invaded their 
recently acquired territory on the Po, and were 
thus induced to accept the ransom money that 
was offered to secure their retreat. The city 
soon arose out of its ruins, and Rome stood in 
her old commanding position. (Plate XIII. b.) 



FROM THE REBUILDING OF ROME TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 

EMPIRE. 



THE CONSOLIDATION OF CENTRAL ITALY. 

The Samnites. — One result of the Celtic 
invasions had been the extension of the Sam- 
nite league, which was for the mountain tribes 
what the Latin league was for the plain. One 
Samnite horde after the other fell upon the 
Greek colonies in Lucania and Campania, 
which, weakened as they had been by the 
Celtic attack, were unable to resist the bar- 
barians. But Samnium lacked a leading com- 
munity, and consequently there was no policy 
of conquest. Every Samnite horde which had 
sought and found new settlements pursued a 
path of its owm. They filled a large space, 
while yet they showed no disposition to make 
it thoroughly their own. Instead of Samnitiz- 
ing the Hellenes, they became Hellenized. 
The old mountain home of the Samnites alone 
remained unaffected by these innovations, 
which powerfully contributed to loosen still 
more the bond of national unity^ which from 
the first was loose. It was this variance be- 
tween the Samnites of the plain and the 
Samnites of the mountains that led the 
Romans over the Liris and became the im- 
mediate cause of the Samnite wars. 

Samnite Wars. — It was nothing else but a 
gigantic struggle, lasting more than fifty years, 



between the mountain and the plain. The 
question at issue was, whether Italy should 
become united and civilized, or would be 
doomed to remain a loose collection of shep- 
herd tribes. The first Samnite war was soon 
over (343-341 B.C.), and had not much result ; 
both sides were willing to make peace, especi- 
ally Rome, for she was just then afraid of her 
allies, the Latins, who had asked in vain to 
be admitted to the full rights of Roman citi- 
zens. The struggle lasted nearly three years 
(340-338 B.C.), and ended with the dissolution 
of the Latin league. Instead of the one treaty 
between Rome on the one hand and the Latin 
confederacy on the other, perpetual alliances 
were entered into between Rome and the 
several confederate towns. The Latin league 
was transformed into a Latin state. Twelve 
years after the pacification of Latium broke 
out the second or great Samnite war (326- 
304 B.C.). It was a general uprising of the 
Italian nations against consolidated Latium, 
Etruscans and Celts joining the Samnites. 
The fall of the chief stronghold of Samnium 
(Bovianum, 305 B.C.) terminated the twenty- 
two years' war. The victory of Rome was 
complete, and she turned it to full account. 

The region which separated Samnium from 
Etruria was penetrated by two military roads. 



33 



343—263 B. C, 



PLATE XIV. 




PYERHUS — UNITED ITALY, 



both of which were secured by new fortresses. 
The northern road covered the line of the 
Tiber, the southern ran along the Fucine 
lake. The Appian road secured Apulia and 
Campania. 

These roads served to connect together a 
series of road-fortresses (Latin colonies). By 
their means Samnium would be in a few years 
entirely surrounded, isolated from the rest of 
Italy, and completely in the grasp of Rome. 
Such a peace was more ruinous than the most 
destructive war. With the help of Celts and 
Etruscans, Samnium, five years after the 
peace, renewed the struggle (third Samnite 
War, 299-290 B.C.), which culminated in the 
decisive Roman victory of Sentinum (295 B.C.). 
Five years afterward Samnium begged for 
peace, and became a subject-ally of Rome. 
Rome was now mistress of Central Italy. She 
had subdued the Samnites and Etruscans, and 
had driven back the Gauls, and there were 
only some Greek cities in the south to stand 
against her. 

Pyrrhus. — Among them was wealthy Tar- 
entum, old treaties with which prohibited 
Roman ships-of-war from passing the prom- 
ontory of Lacinium. A Roman war fleet on 
its way to the Umbrian coast, overtaken by 
storms, sought refuge in the harbor of Taren- 
tum. The Tarentines attacked the vessels, 
capturing five. A Roman embassy which 
came to demand reparation being grossly in- 
sulted, a Roman army advanced into the 
Tarentine territory. The Tarentines called to 
their assistance Pyrrhus, of Epirus, the re- 
nowned leader of mercenaries, who landed 
(280 B.C.) with 25,000 troops and twenty ele- 
phants. For the first time the Roman militia 
had to fight with regular soldiers — the dreaded 
Macedonian phalanx. The Romans were con- 
quered by tactics, but fled only when Pyrrhus 
launched his elephants (the Lucanian oxen) 
upon their weakened ranks (battle of Heraclea, 
280 B.C.). He conquered the Romans again 
at Asciilum in Apulia (279 b.c), but was finally 
completely defeated at Beneventum (275 B.C.). 
Rome had expelled the Hellenic foreigners 
from Italian soil. 

United Italy. — It is more than probable 
that the repelling of the Celtic and Hellenic 
invasions played an important part as a reason 
for centralizing the military resources of Italy 
in the hands of the Romans. When they took 
the lead in the great national struggle, and 
compelled the Etruscans, Latins, Sabellians, 
Apulians, and Hellenes alike to fight under 
their standards, that unity obtained firm con- 
solidation and recognition in state law ; and 
the name Italia, which originally pertained 
only to the modern Calabria, was gradually 



transferred to the whole of the peninsula south 
of the Appennines. The earliest boundaries 
of this great armed confederacy, led by Rome, 
reached, on the western coast, as far as the 
mouth of the Arnus, on the east, as far as the 
^sis. 

The new Italy had thus become a political 
unity ; it was also in the course of becoming a 
national unity. Already the ruling Latin na- 
tionality had assimilated to itself the Sabines 
and the Volscians, and had scattered isolated 
Latin communities (the Latin colonies or road- 
fortresses) over all Italy. The great southern 
highway, which acquired, in the fortress of 
Beneventum, a new station, intermediate be- 
tween Capua and Venusia, was continued as 
far as the seaports of Tarentum and Brundu- 
sium, and firmly established the dominion of 
Rome in the interior of Lower Italy. 

These germs were merely developed when, 
subsequently, the Latin language became the 
mother-tongue of everyone entitled to Roman 
citizenship. 

The singular cohesion which that confedera- 
tion subsequently exhibited under the sever- 
est shocks stamped their great work with the 
seal of success. 

« 
THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. 

Cause. — The circumstances of the struggle 
with Pyrrhus and the Southern Italians had 
forced Rome to become to some extent a mari- 
time power. As mistress of Italy, she had to 
protect the exposed Italian coasts. 

Accordingly, a fleet began tO' be formed as 
early as ^;^S B.C., which received constant addi- 
tions. But this new tendency on the part of 
Rome could not fail to provoke the jealousy 
of the chief maritime power of the Western 
Mediterranean, Carthage, whose policy it had 
always been to oppose the establishment of 
any naval rival in the waters which she re- 
garded as her own. Thus unfriendly feelings, 
arising out of a consciousness of clashing in- 
terests, had for some time been growing up 
between Carthage and Rome, and nothing 
was needed but a decent pretext in order that 
the two lukewarm friends should become open 
and avowed enemies. The pretext was not 
long wanting. The Mamertines of Messana 
being threatened with destruction by the com- 
bined Carthaginians and Syracusans, applied 
for help to Rome, which at once invaded Sic- 
ily, and by an act of treachery made herself 
mistress of the disputed port. War with Car- 
thage necessarily followed — a war for the pos- 
session of Sicily and for maritime supremacy 
in the Mediterranean. 

Rome and Carthage. — The Carthaginian 
empire was, in its constitution, not unlike tha( 



263—200 B. C, 



Plate XV. 




FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. 



of Rome. Both had grown out of one city as 
their centre ; both ruled over allies of alien 
and of kindred race ; both had sent out numer- 
ous colonies, and through them had spread 
their nationality. 

What, then, was the decisive force which, 
after the long trembling of the balance be- 
tween Rome and Carthage, turned the scale ? 
It was the homogeneousness of the material 
out of which the Roman state was constructed 
as compared with the varied elements which 
formed the Carthaginian. 

The Romans were Latins, of the same blood 
as the Sabines and all the other races which 
formed the principal stock of the population 
of Italy. They were related in blood w^ith the 
Greeks of Southern Italy, and they harmo- 
nized in a great measure with the Etruscans 
in their mode of life, in political thought and 
religious rites. But the Carthaginians were 
strangers in Africa, and they remained so to 
the end. 

First Punic War. — The first Punic War 
lasted twenty-three years (264-241 B.C.). The 
long duration of the struggle showed that the 
combatants were not unequally matched. The 
strength of Rome lay in the warlike qualities 
of her citizens and subjects. Carthage was 
immeasurably superior in wealth. In this 
first war several great naval battles were 
fought (in 260 B.C., at Mylae, in 256 B.C., at 
Ecnomos), and the decision was brought about 
by the victory of Catulus near the ^gatian 
Islands (241 B.C.). 

The prize of the war, the beautiful island of 
Sicily, was gained by the victorious Romans. 
But this was not the only result. The superi- 
ority of Rome over Carthage was shown, and 
the ^^ zvar concerning Sicily," gvQ^it and impor- 
tant as it was, was only the prelude to the 
greater and more important struggle which 
established the dominion of Rome on the ruins 
of Carthage. 

Second Punic War. — This greater strug- 
gle broke out twenty-three years after the 
first Punic War, and lasted seventeen years 
(218-201 B.C.). This second Punic War was 
not about a disputed boundary, about the 
possession of a province or some partial ad- 
vantage ; it was a struggle for existence — for 
supremacy or destruction. It was to decide 
whether the Hellenic civilization of the West 
or the Semitic civilization of the East was to 
be established in Europe. 

The plan of the Romans, to land their main 
army in Africa while a second army should 
engage the Carthaginian troops in Spain, was 
thwarted by Hannibal's daring overland ex- 
pedition to Italy. 

Crossino: the Pyrenees with 50,000 foot, 



9,000 horse, and thirty-seven elephants, Han- 
nibal traversed Southern Gaul to the ford of 
the Rhone, near Orange. Then he went along 
the eastern side of the Rhone as far as Vienna, 
where he turned eastward to follow the course 
of the Isere. Crossing the Little St. Bernard, 
he descended into Italy along the course of 
the Dorea Baltea. Unvarying success accom- 
panied him from the first moment of his set- 
ting foot in Italy. He beat the Romans on 
the Ticinus and the Trebia in 218 B.C., and 
again at the Trasimene Lake in 217. His suc- 
cess rose higher and higher, until it cul- 
minated in the crowning victory at Cannse (216 
B.C.). But from this time the vigor of Hanni- 
bal's attack relaxed ; its force seemed spent. 
For Hannibal those difficulties began whicli 
are inseparable from a campaign in a foreign 
country, at a great distance from the native 
resources. He remained the terror of the 
Romans, but it became now more and more 
apparent that the resources of Rome were su- 
perior to those of her enemies. Gradually 
she rose from her fall. 

Yielding on no point, she kept up vigorously 
the defensive against Hannibal, while she 
passed to the offensive in the other theatres of 
war, in Spain, Sicily, and finally in Africa ; 
and, having thoroughly reduced and weakened 
the strength of her adversary, she dealt a last 
and decisive blow against Hannibal himself at 
Zama (202 B.C.). Hannibal returned, after an 
absence of thirty-six years, to the city of his 
birth, not as a triumphant victor, but as a de- 
feated general, to tell his fellow-citizens that 
not only the battle, but the war, was lost. 

Results. — The immediate results of the 
second Punic War were the conversion of 
Spain into two Roman provinces ; the union of 
the hitherto dependent kingdom of Syracuse 
with the Roman province of Sicily ; the estab- 
lishment of a Roman instead of the Cartlia- 
ginian protectorate over the most important 
Numidian chiefs ; and lastly, the conversion 
of Carthage from a powerful commercial state 
into a defenceless mercantile town. In other 
words, it established the uncontested hegem- 
ony of Rome over the western region of the 
Mediterranean. 

In the very year of the conclusion of peace 
with Carthage (201 B.C.) Rome recommenced 
hostilities in the plain of the Po, where the 
Gauls had, ever since the invasion of Hanni- 
bal, defied the Roman authority and main- 
tained their independence. It was only by 
energetic and repeated efforts, and by skil- 
fully fomenting the divisions among the 
tribes, that Rome once more established her 
dominion over this fair and fertile region, forc- 
ing the Gauls to become her reluctant subjects 



34 



CONQUEST OF THE EAST. 



(191 B.C.). This conquest was followed by a 
fresh arrangement of the territory. The line of 
the Po was taken as tliat which should bound 
the strictly Roman possessions. Beyond the 
Po, the Gallic communities, though allowed 
to retain their existence and their native gov- 
ernments, were especially required to allow 
no fresh immigrants to settle on the southern 
side of the Alpine chain. 

THE CONQUEST OF THE EAST. 

The Second Macedonian War.*— Next to 

Hannibal, Philip V. of Macedonia was the most 
important enemy of Rome. He committed 
the error of leaving Carthage, with which he 
was in alliance, without support, while he em- 
ployed himself unprofitably with exciting 
among ^^tolians and Athenians apprehension 
for their independence. 

Philip was capable^ of great exertion ; cun- 
ning and vigilance were not wanting to him ; 
and as a general he knew how to turn to good 
account the natural advantages of his country. 
But when the Romans came at the call of 
Pergamus, Rhodes, and Athens to the aid of 
Greek liberty (for such was their profession) 
it appeared at Cynoscephalae (Plate XH.) that 
Philip knew not how to render his phalanx 
sufficiently manageable in an intersected coun- 
try, and he was accordingly defeated by Titus 
Quinctius Flamininus (197 B.C.).' He had to 
give up all possessions outside of Macedonia 
proper and to pay 1,000 talents in ten years (a 
talent equals $1,250). During the celebration 
of the Isthmian games at Corinth, Flamininus 
proclaimed "///<? freedom and independence of 
the Greek cantons.'' 

W^ar with Antiochus the Great. — As 
Macedonia had been conquered because the 
king, instead of waging war in alliance with 
Hannibal, had deferred it until the Romans 
were able to fall upon him, so Antiochus the 
Great was still more easily subdued because 
he had taken no part in the fate of Macedonia. 
From the ruins of old Troy to the Caucasus 
and the furthest confines of Media his will 
was law. Scarcely did he feel that the Par- 
thians (since 255 B.C.) were no longer under his 
sway ; the most beautiful, the most populous 
and flourishing provinces of the earth obeyed 
him. The first part of his reign had shone 
with glory, and he was by far the most power- 
ful monarch of Asia. His activity only had 
diminished with increasing age. Antioch was 
one of the most voluptuous cities of the world 

*The first Macedonian War (213-205 B.C.), instigated by 
Hannibal, was contemporaneous with the second Punic War. 
The Romans excited the ^toHans against Macedonia, to 
prevent its sending assistance to Hannibal. 



35 



and there the great Antiochus slumbered un- 
der the laurels of his earlier years. About 194 
B.C. Hannibal fled to his court, and succeeded 
in engaging Antiochus in a contest against the 
power of Rome. 

But after war had been declared the coun- 
sels of Hannibal were not listened to with re- 
spect to the manner of conducting it. Crowned 
with garlands and by the sound of the flute 
and lyre, Antiochus, at the head of 400,000 
men, crossed over into Thessaly. In silken and 
purple tents, before richly covered tables, he 
expected to triumph over those whom Hanni- 
bal and Philip had not been able to withstand. 

Accordingly Manius Acilius Glabrio easily 
forced him, after he had defeated him in the 
battle of Thermopylae (191 b.c), to leave Greece 
and recross into Asia. Hither he was quickly 
followed by a Roman army, nominally under 
the command of the consul, L. Cornelius 
Scipio, but really under his brother, P. Cor- 
nelius Scipio Africanus. 

In a great battle fought (190 b.c.) near Mag- 
nesia, on the Sipylus (Plate XII.), he suffered 
such a defeat that he was glad to purchase 
peace at the price of Asia Minor as far as Mount 
Taurus and by surrendering half his ships. 

Third Macedonian War. — The plan of 
Philip v., of Macedoniji, to revenge himself 
on the Romans, and to regain the old borders 
of Macedonia, was carried forward by his son 
and successor, Perseus, who pursued for a 
long time a system of measures, which was 
not devoid of policy, allying himself by inter- 
marriages with Prusias of Bithynia and Seleu- 
cus of Syria, and winning to his cause many 
princes of Thrace and Illyria. Even in Greece 
he had a considerable party, who thought his 
yoke would be more tolerable than that of 
Rome. But, as the danger of a rupture drew 
near, Perseus' good genius seemed to forsake 
him. He allowed Rome to crush his friends 
in Greece without reaching out a hand to 
come to their assistance ; he allowed himself 
to be entrapped into making a truce during 
these months, thus enabling the Romans to 
complete their preparations at their leisure. 
In the fall of 171 b.c. both armies took the 
field, and at first it seemed that Perseus was 
destined to restore the ancient celebrity of the 
Macedonian arms. But in 168 B.C. the com- 
mand of the Roman army was intrusted to 
Lucius ^milius Paulus, who speedily over- 
came the apparently invincible obstacles 
which forests and mountains opposed to his 
progress. He forced Perseus to accept battle 
at Pydna (June 22). A sudden panic seized 
the king, who fled from the battle-field, and 
even abandoned his kingdom. He knew not 
how to die, but delivered himself a captive. 



THE THIRD PUNIC ^VAR. 



Macedonia, divided up into four distinct 
states, was declared a free country under tlie 
protection of Rome, and in the one hundred 
and fifty-fifth year after the death of Alexander 
the Great, the last successor of his throne was 
led to Rome, following the triumphal car of 
the conqueror, where he died in most abject 
degradation. 

Polybius dates from the battle of Pydna 
(i68 B.C.) the full establishment of the univer- 
sal empire of Rome. 

The whole civilized world thenceforth rec- 
ognized in the Roman senate the supreme 
tribunal, whose commissioners decided in the 
last resort between kino-s and nations. 



THE THIRD PUNIC WAR. 

But the greatest undertaking of this period 
was to remove out of the way the city which, 
however reduced, was still felt to be Rome's 
sole rival in the western world, and to assume 
the actual government of a new dependency 
in a new continent. This determination was 
in no way forced upon Rome by circumstances, 
but was decided upon as the course best calcu- 
lated to advance Roman interests. 

After the second Punic War Rome had 
taken under her protection Massinissa, King 
of Numidia. 

The time from the peace of 201 B.C. to the 
breaking out of the war of extermination in 
149 B.C. was filled with uninterrupted attacks 
of Massinissa against the integrity of the 
Carthaginian possessions. The fact that he 
was useful to the Romans in their wars in 
Spain, encouraged him in the belief that he 
could act as he chose. He continually ad- 
vanced fresh claims upon the Carthaginian 
territory, and thus forced the unhappy city 
ao^ain and agrain to have recourse to the arbi- 
tration of Rome. The embassy which in 157 
B.C. was despatched by the Senate to inquire 
into the affairs of Africa contained among its 
members the most uncompromising enemy of 
Carthage, Marcus Porcius Cato. The Car- 
thaginians appealed to their just rights, guar- 
anteed by treaty. Massinissa, on the contrary, 
declared his readiness to accept uncondition- 
ally the decision of the Romans, whatever it 
might be. The Carthaginian appeal to their 
rights appeared to Cato in the light of pre- 
sumptuous defiance, and he determined to 
humble them to the dust. With astonishment 
and jealous envy he had observed the flourish- 
ing condition of their country. Though they 
had lost their foreign possessions, Carthage 
was still a town full of life and wealth. The 
port was thronged with shipping, and the 
streets and market-places were crowded with 



a busy multitude. The coimtry was culti- 
vated like a garden, and signs were everywhere 
visible of wealth and prosperity. He returned 
to Rome with the firm conviction that Car- 
thage must be swept from the face of the 
earth, if Rome was to continue to exist. This 
policy found allies in the mighty influence of 
the Roman bankers and great capitalists, on 
whom, after the destruction of the rich mon- 
eyed and mercantile city, its inheritance would 
necessarily devolve. The desired occasion 
was soon found. The Carthaginians, having 
been unable to procure from Rome any repar- 
ation for several losses of territory, which 
they had sustained at the hands of Massinissa, 
finally took up arms themselves. The Roman 
Senate promptly declared this a breach of the 
peace. Two Roman armies landed at Utica, 
and the consuls required the disarming of the 
city. They humbly submitted. But when 
ordered to abandon their city and make a new 
settlement ten miles from the sea, the Car- 
thaginians resolved on a desperate resistance. 
With the greatest sacrifices on the part of all 
the inhabitants, w^ithout regard to rank, age, 
or sex, new equipments were provided. Weap- 
ons were manufactured day and night. A new 
fleet was built in the inner harbor, and the 
first attack of the Romans was manfully re- 
pulsed. 

When the third year of the war was drawing 
to a close Carthage was completely blockaded 
by land and sea, and Scipio could suspend his 
operations, leaving famine and pestilence to 
complete v/hat he had begun. In the begin- 
ning of the spring of 146 B.C. the city was cap- 
tured. But not until the seventh day after 
the Romans had entered the town, did the 
wretched remnant of the Carthaginian people 
surrender. Fifty thousand men, women, and 
children were carried off as prisoners. The 
conquered town was now given up to plunder 
and then consigned to the flames. The plough 
was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, 
and a solemn curse was pronounced against 
anyone who should ever undertake to build a 
new^ town on that spot. 

The greater part of the Carthaginian terri- 
tory was joined to Utica, which now became 
the capital of the Roman province of Africa. 
The Numidian Kingdom was not enlarged. 
It was left to internal disputes, which rendered 
it a safe neighbor. 

THE ACH^AN WAR. 

After the conquest of Macedonia the Greeks 
perceived how much more formidable to their 
independence the Roman Republic was than 
the king they had labored to dethrone. The 



36 



PLATE XYl. 




THE NUMAXTINE VTAB. — THE GRACCHI. 



Romans, alter quelling an attempt made by a 
certain Andriscus, who gave himself out as 
Philippus, brother of Perseus, made Macedo- 
nia a Roman province, and sought to acquire 
secure possession of all the strong places in 
Greece. They made a formal demand of the 
Achaean confederacy to hand over to them all 
the fortresses which the Macedonian king 
had formerly possessed in the Peloponnesus. 
The embassy by which this proposal was sent 
was treated with insult by the populace of 
Corinth, and this aggression seemed to afford 
sufficient pretence for declaring war. 

Achaea fought in vain, with the heroic spirit 
of ancient Greece. Critolaus, the head of the 
Achaean league, could only avoid a shameful 
submission by voluntary death. His succes- 
sor, Diaeus, summoned all who could bear 
arms together on the Isthmus, and armed 
12,000 slaves. But he was completely defeated 
by the Consul Lucius Mummius at Leucope- 
tra (146 B.C.), who occupied Corinth, adorned 
with the innumerable splendid works which 
the luxury and arts of the finest ages of Greece 
had produced. In the 955th year after the 
building of this city, in the same year as Car- 
thage, Corinth was plundered and burned, 
all the adult males were massacred, and the 
women and children sold into slavery ; many 
priceless art-treasures were destroyed. The 
Boeotian Thebes, and Chalcis, the great capital 
of Euboea, the mother of so many colonies, 
were also committed to the flames. 

THE NUMANTINE WAR. 

After Carthage an.d Corinth had fallen, the 
Spaniard Viriathus, a great warrior, gave oc- 
cupation to the arms of Rome during eight 
years ; and in the same country a fortress, 
Numantia, which was defended by only 4,000 
men, detained several Roman generals four- 
teen years before its walls. Viriathus was only 
subdued by treachery (139 B.C.). Even Scipio 
^milianus, the conqueror of Carthage, was 
unable to make himself master of Numan- 
tia ; but when hunger had reduced its in- 
habitants to despair, and Scipio avoided giv- 
ing them battle, they set fire to the town 
and destroyed themselves in the flames (133 
B.C.). After the fall of Numantia all Spain, 
excepting the mountain tribes of the north 
(who maintained their freedom during another 
century), was reduced under Roman govern- 
ment. 

THE CIVIL WARS. 

The Gracchi. — While the Romans, with so 
much labor, obtained possession of barbarous 
Spain, Asia Minor fell easily into their power. 
The last Attalus, King of Pergamus, dying 



without heirs, gave, by his last will, to Rome 
his whole kingdom. 

It was immediately proposed by Tiberius 
Sempronius Gracchus, the tribune of the peo- 
ple, to divide the treasure of Attalus, and to 
provide a new law which might prevent any 
j citizen from possessing more than 1,000 jugera 
in land (a jugerum was a measure of surface, 
240X120 ft.). The father of the tribune, 
I whose name he bore, had been a magnificent 
j aristocrat, and his mother was Cornelia, 
: daughter of Hannibal's conqueror, Scipio 
Africanus Maior. Tiberius himself possessed 
all these qualities which would have ren- 
dered him a powerful citizen, without trans- 
gressing the laws. But he saw the great 
estates, worked by slaves, gradually crowding 
out the class of small proprietors ; and the 
manhood and soil of Italy and the Roman 
army proportionately depreciated. To fill the 
vacuum he proposed to distribute to the poor, 
not only of Rome, but of the conquered Ital- 
ian towns (Miinicipid), of the burgess-colonies 
[ColonicB Latince\ and of the free inhabitants of 
Italy [Socii), land taken from the rich members 
of those four component parts of the Roman 
State. The treasures of Attalus should be 
divided among the new land-owners in order 
that they might procure the necessary equip- 
ment. 

His laws were naturally opposed by the 
ricli land-owners, who had gained over one of 
the tribunes, Octavius, who, by his veto pre- 
vented the voting on the measure. Tiberius 
had him deposed by an unconstitutional pop- 
ular decree. The laws were then passed, a 
commission was appointed (Tiberius, his 
brother Caius, and his father-in-law, Appius 
Claudius), and the work of resumption and 
distribution commenced. But it proved slow 
work, and Tiberius Gracchus tried, contrary to 
the constitution, to secure the election to the 
tribunate for the following year. 

The election was forcibly stopped by the 
Senate, who, with Scipio Nasica at its head, 
took the lead in a violent attack upon him, and 
murdered him in open day, together with 300 
of his partisans (133 B.C.). The work of the 
murdered man, however, went on. The Ag- 
rarian commission was renewed and allowed to 
continue its labors. But the arbitrary con- 
duct of the new commissioners, Carbo and 
Flaccus, disgusted the more moderate peo- 
ple, and emboldened the Senate first to quash 
the commission and assign its duties to the con- 
suls, and finally suspend proceedings under 
the Sempronian law altogether. 

Caius Gracchus, more eloquent and pos- 
sessed of greater abilities than his brother, 
after a lapse of ten years attempted to carry 



37 



THE .TUGrRTHINP: AND CIMBKIC WARS. 



out the plans of Tiberius on a larger scale. 
His object was to break down the oligarchy 
within and without. He aimed, on the one 
hand, to restore the power of the magistrates, 
which had become completely dependent on 
the Senate, to its original sovereign rights, 
and to reconvert the senatorial assembly from 
a governing into a deliberative board ; and, on 
the other hand, to put an end to the aristo- 
cratic division of the state into the three 
classes of the ruling burgesses, the Italian allies and 
the subjects, by the gradual equalization of those 
distinctions which were incompatible with a 
government not oligarchical. 

The Senate, being far more than his match 
in finesse and manoeuvre, triumplied over him, 
though not without once more having recourse 
to violence, and staining the streets and pri- 
sons of Rome w^th the blood of above 3,000 
of her citizens (121 B.C.). 

The Jugurthine War. — The murder of 
Caius Gracchus gave the government to the 
aristocratic party, whose corruption was not 
only gradually increasing, but was becoming 
more generally known. The circumstances 
of the Jugurthine war brought it prominently 
into notice. After the destruction of Carthage, 
the greatest state in Africa was Xumidia. 
In 118 B.C. its king, Micipsa, died, and left the 
kingdom to his two sons, Adherbal and 
Hiempsal, and to a nephew and adopted son, 
Jugurtha. The co-regents soon quarrelled, 
and Jugurtha determined to have the king- 
dom all to himself. So he murdered Hiemp- 
sal and expelled Adherbal, who sought pro- 
tection in Rome. A commission of the 
Senate, w^hich was bribed by Jugurtha, ar- 
ranged a division of the kingdom entirely in 
Jugurtha's favor. The latter attacked Ad- 
herbal anew, defeated him, and besieged him 
in Cirta, his capital. Without heeding the 
intervention of the Roman Senate, Jugurtha 
captured Cirta and put to death Adherbal and 
the whole male population of tlie city, includ- 
ing many Italians. The tribune Caius Mem- 
mius now forces the Senate to declare war 
against Jugurtha, and the consul Calpurnius 
Bestia is sent against him. Jugurtha buys 
from him a peace, which the Senate, however, 
refuses to ratify. Ordered to Rome to explain 
his conduct, he obeys the summons, and soon 
gains partisans for himself by his money. 

Memmius accuses, but another tribune, 
Baebius, protects him, and he is allowed to 
depart, notwithstanding that he has contrived 
at Rome the murder of his kinsman Massiva, 
on whom the Senate was about to confer his 
crown. When he left Rome, looking back 
upon it, he is said to have exclaimed : " Oh 
city where everything is sold, you would sell your- 



self if you could only find a buyer.'" The Romans 
declared war against him (no B.C.), but he 
bribed the generals, and for three years very 
little was done against him. In 108 B.C. the 
conduct of the war was intrusted to Quintus 
Metellus, who captured Cirta and most of the 
other cities, and forced Jugurtha to take re- 
fuge at the court of the Mauritanian king, 
Bocchus. Metellus would have finished the 
w^ar, but in 106 b.c. the command was taken 
from him and given to his former lieutenant, 
Caius Marius, who was the son of a day- 
laborer, and had risen from the lowest rank to 
the highest command. This Marius conquered 
the united forces of Jugurtha and Bocchus, 
and induced the latter to deliver Jugurtha into 
his hands. Xumidia was divided between 
Bocchus and Gauda the last living grandson 
of Massinissa. The captive king was led in 
triumph at Rome and died of hunger in prison 
(104 B.C.). 

The Cimbric War. — About 113 b.c, when 
all the most accessible Alpine passes were in 
the possession of the Romans, and when 
Southern Gaul was a Roman province, hordes 
of barbarians appeared on the borders of Italy 
under the name of Ci?nbri (Chempho, i.e., war- 
riors). After laying waste the banks of the 
Danube and all Gaul they overcame (113) the 
consul Carbo, at Noreia, and soon after (109) 
Silanus in Gaul. They defeated Cassius (107), 
near the Garonne, with disgrace and dreadful 
slaughter ; and Caepio and Manlius with still 
greater loss at Arausio on the Rhone (107). 

In this calamitous emergency no candidate 
appeared for the consulship, and the Senate 
was obliged to offer it to Caius Marius, the con- 
queror of Jugurtha. He was elected consul 
five times in succession (104-100). 

The Cimbri meantime had crossed the 
Pyrenees and were wandering aimlessly about 
among the Spanish tribes. Forced by them 
to recross the Pyrenees they traversed Western 
Gaul. Driven back by the Belgians the Cimbri 
united with the Germanic tribes of the Teu- 
tones and Helvetians. These three nations 
resolved to enter Italy in two separate bands. 
The Cimbri with part of the Helvetians were 
to invade it from the north, while the Teutones 
with the rest of the Helvetians were to force 
their way into the peninsula through Southern 
Gaul. Marius marched to attack the Teu- 
tones and sent Catulus, his colleague, against 
the Cimbri, who were rushing down like tor- 
rents from the Rhaetian Alps. 

Marius took his position at the junction of 
the Isere and the Rhone, where he covered the 
two military roads, 'which at that time alone 
connected Gaul and Italy [the Pass of the Little 
St. Bernard and the Cor niche road). He ren- 



MARIUS — THE SOCIAL WAR. 



dered the enemy more negligent by delay and 
by the same means inflamed his own army to 
extreme impatience. 

At length he made the attack, and near 
Aquae Sextiae, now Aix in Provence, he ex- 
terminated the Teutonic host (102 B.C.). After 
Marius had completed this work he passed 
into the plains of Verona, where Catulus found 
himself unable to withstand the terrific hordes 
whom the snow-clad mountains and impet- 
uous torrents of the Alps had not arrested in 
their course. The two consuls having joined 
forces advanced across the Po and annihilated 
(loi) the Cimbri in the battle of Vercellae (on 
the Raudine plain). 

The human avalanche, which for thirteen 
years had alarmed the nations from the Dan- 
ube to the Ebro, from the Seine to the Po, 
rested beneath the sod or toiled under the 
yoke of slavery ; the homeless people of the 
Cimbri and their comrades were no more. 

The Roman Army. — The armies which 
had gained the battles at Aquae Sextiae and 
Vercellae were no longer composed, as of old, 
of citizens who fought w^hen their country 
wanted them, and then went back to their 
work, but they were full of men who had taken 
to a soldier's life as a regular profession. 

There had been for a long time among the 
wealthier classes a growing disinclination for 
service, and as the middle class was rapidly 
disappearing there had been great difficulty 
in filling the ranks. To meet this, though 
the old obligation to service was not abol- 
ished, volunteering was not only allowed, but 
became the practice, and the army with a new 
drill, and no longer consisting of Romans or 
even Italians, but of men of all nations, be- 
came as effective as of old, if not more so, 
and at the same time a body detached from 
the state. 

This army was divided into legions (sub- 
divided into ten cohorts of 600 men each), to 
which Marius gave as a new standard the 
silver eagle, henceforward the emblem of the 
Roman state. 

Marius in Peace. — Twenty years had 
elapsed since the bloody corpse of Caius 
Gracchus had been flung into the Tiber, when 
the man appeared who seemed to be destined 
to continue his work and bring it to a suc- 
cessful issue. This was Marius, who after 
his return from the Cimbrian campaign was 
discharging the consular office for the sixth 
time (100 B.C.). But though sufficiently ambi- 
tious to carry out the plans of the Gracchi, he 
wanted judgment and firmness. 

Allying himself with Saturninus, the tribune, 
and Glaucia, the praetor, three laws were car- 
ried : 



1. A division of land among the veterans ol 
Marius. 

2. The planting of large colonies in Sicily, 
Achaia, and Macedonia. 

3. To supply the new settlers with money 
from the treasury to enable them to stock 
their farms. 

A fourth law, to reduce the price of the corn 
annually to Roman citizens, led to terrible 
riots. Saturninus and Glaucia were declared 
public enemies by the Senate. They, trusting 
to his protection, surrendered themselves to 
Marius, who allowed the Senate to put them 
to death. Marius had so completely exhibited 
his political incapacity to all the world that 
he suddenly dropped into total oblivion and 
contempt from the summit of popularity and 
the highest office of the Republic. On the 
pretext of a vow that he had made to the 
Phrygian mother of the gods^ he w^ent to Asia 
Minor, where he impatiently waited for an 
opportunity which would enable him to re- 
turn to Rome and to show that he w^as still 
the great military genius he had been. 

The Social War.— While the Italian allies 
had originally stood to the Romans, partly in 
the relation of brothers under tutelage, pro- 
tected rather than ruled, and not destined to 
perpetual minority, partly in that of slaves 
tolerably treated and not utterly deprived of 
the hope of manumission, they were now all 
of them subject nearly in equal degree and 
with equal hopelessness to the rod and axes 
of their Roman masters. To prevent a rising 
of the Italians against this intolerable yoke 
the tribune Marcus Livius Drusus proposed 
(91 B.C.) that the citizenship of Rome should 
be given to all the Italians. Both nobles and 
people were angry with Drusus for bringing 
forward this law, and the necessary reform 
was delayed by a bold use of the knife. On 
the day on which it was to have been voted 
upon Drusus was murdered. 

This murder drove the Italians to despair. 
Eight nations, chiefly of the Sabine stock, en- 
tered into close alliance, chose Corfinium for 
their capital, and formed a federal republic, to 
which they gave the name of " Italia." The 
struggle of the Sabellian ox against the Roman 
she-wolf (as one of the coins of the insurgents 
represents it) began in vhe winter of 91-90. 
At the outset great success attended the 
effort, and it seemed as if Rome must have 
succumbed. But the sagacious policy of Rome 
changed the face of affairs and secured her a 
triumph which she could not have accom- 
plished by arms alone. At first they gave the 
Roman citizenship to all the Italians who 
had not yet revolted ; then to all who shoulcj 
lay down their arms in two months. 



39 



MAKIUS AND SULLA— FIRST MITII MADATIO WAR. 



We may divide this social war into two 
periods, each well defined and each consisting 
of a year, the first (90 b.c), in which the con- 
federate cause triumphed and Marius, who had 
returned from Asia, lost credit ; the second (89 
B.C.), in which the cause of Rome triumphed 
and Sulla enhanced his reputation and became 
the foremost man at Rome. He had con- 
quered stubborn Samnium, which had shown 
again all the old vigor of the Samnite wars. 
Sulla had entirely eclipsed Marius, whose sym- 
pathies were secretly with the revolters and 
who had no desire to push them to extremities. 

Marius and Sulla. — Before the social war 
had been brought to its close tidings were 
received in Rome (88) that the Greek cities 
of Asia, upon an order of Mithradates, king of 
Pontus, had put to death in one day all the 
Italians within their walls (80,000). An army 
under a well-tried general had to be despatched 
at once to Asia. Marius, the conqueror of 
the northern and southern barbarians, thought 
it his due to be sent against the barbarians in 
the East. But the part taken by him in the 
Social war had redounded little to his credit. 
Sulla, on the other hand, had greatly increased 
his reputation, and it was therefore natural 
that he should be selected by the Senate as 
the commander against Mithradates. But the 
comitia deprived Sulla of his commission and 
transferred the command to Marius. The in- 
sulted consul was not prepared to submit to 
his adversary. Quitting Rome he joined his le- 
gions in Campania and marched them straight 
upon the capital. Marius, at first, repulsed 
Sulla's attack, but the victory finally remained 
with Sulla. The defeated Marians were forced 
to seek safety in flight. Marius himself barely 
escaped with his life and reached Africa an 
almost unattended fugitive. Sulla now re- 
stored the power of the Senate ; but, on the 
whole, he legislated as little as he could, and 
proscribed as few as he could. Only he tried 
to get two of his partisans elected consuls for 
the year 87 b.c. Instead of them, however, 
Lucius Cornelius Cinna, a determined leader 
of the democracy, and Cnaeus Octavius were 
elected. As long as Sulla was in Rome 
things remained quiet, but no sooner was he 
gone than the flames of civil war burst out 
afresh. 

Cinna endeavored to restore the exiled Ma- 
rius. But forced to fly he threw himself upon 
the legionaries, invited Marius over from 
Africa, and marched on Rome. Again the 
city was taken and Marius and Cinna assumed 
the consulship. Sulla himself was proscribed, 
his friends were butchered, and a reign of 
terror was inaugurated which lasted for sev- 
eral months. But the death of Marius (early 



40 



in 86 B.C.) put a stop to the worst of these hor- 
rors, though Rome remained for two years 
longer under a revolutionary government. 

First Mithradatic War. — Since 133 b.c. the 
Romans had been in possession of the Perga- 
menian kingdom, which had become a Roman 
province under the name of Asia (Plate XII. 2). 
Being the wealthiest country in the possession 
of the republic, it attracted in crowds the 
Roman merchants, money-lenders, and advent- 
urers, who vied with the annual governors in 
rapacity and reckless cruelty. Very soon the 
ill-used provincials began to look upon the 
government of their native kings, with all its 
despotic rigor, as a lost happiness, which it 
was their devout wish to see restored. By 
the side of the Roman province several an- 
cient principalities continued to maintain 
their independence, Bithynia and Pontus 
(or rather Pontic Cappadocia) being the most 
important. Pontus had never been incorpo- 
rated with the Persian monarchy ; nor was it 
conquered by Alexander the Great. The na- 
tive princes owed this happy independence 
partly to their geographical position in the 
northern extremity of Asia Minor, partly to 
the ruggedness and sterility of the greater 
part of their possessions. Since 120 b.c. it 
was ruled by Mithradates V. This energetic 
ruler had gradually added to his patrimony 
all the coast of the Black Sea as far as the 
Danube, and now thought himself quite a 
match for Rome, which was just then con- 
vulsed by civil war (88 b.c). He overran 
Galatia, Phrygia, and the province of Asia, 
and proclaimed himself the deliverer of Asia 
from the Roman yoke, ordering that all 
Romans on Asiatic soil should on one day 
be massacred, which caused the death of 
80,000 persons. The Romans confided the 
conduct of the war to Sulla, who {S6 B.C.) de- 
stroyed the Pontic army at Chaeronea in Bceotia 
(Plate X.). He recovered Greece, Macedonia, 
and Asia Minor. By the peace of Dardanus 
in 84 B.C. Mithradates had not only to aban- 
don all his conquests, but had to surrender 
his fleet and pay a fine of 3,000 talents 
($3,750,000). Sulla inflicted upon the Greek 
cities of Asia Minor the immense fine of 20,000 
talents ($25,000,000) which his lieutenant Lu- 
cuUus was to collect. 

Sulla's Dictatorship. — The outlawed Sulla 
now returned to Italy with as much compos- 
ure as if he came in profound peace, to de- 
mand a triumph, the fruit of his victories. 
From Brundisium, where he landed with 
40,000 men, he marched up the country in the 
best order, and preserving the strictest disci- 
pline. He knew that the party of the nobles, 
whereof he was the representative, was stilJ 



POMPEY — SECOND AND THIRD MITHEADATIC WARS. 



Strong at Rome, and he felt that he could 
count on the army, which he had now so often 
led to victory. The strength of the demo- 
cracy lay in the Roman mob and in the Italians. 
For the former he had all a soldier's contempt, 
but the latter he knew to be formidable. He 
therefore, with adroit policy, declared publicly 
that he " intended no interference with the 
rights of any citizen, new or old." He de- 
feated the consul, C. Norbanus, on Mount 
Tifata, near Capua, and seduced into his ser- 
vice the army of L. Scipio, the other consul 
(83 B.C.). The consuls for 82, the younger 
Marius and Carbo, were also unable to hold 
their own against Sulla. 

The northern army was destroyed in detail 
by Carbo's unskilfulness and the last hopes of 
the democrats were ruined by the battle of 
the Colline Gate, where Sulla and Crassus, 
after a desperate struggle, succeeded in defeat- 
ing the remnants of Carbo's army, reinforced 
by the Italians under C. Pontius Telesinus. 

The triumph of Sulla and the nobles was 
stained by a murderous cruelty such as Rome 
had never yet witnessed. 

The number of the outlawed, on whose 
death a reward was set and whose property 
was confiscated, amounted to 4,700. He dis- 
tributed their property among the soldiers of 
his forty-seven legions. Sulla remained lord 
of Rome, first without any title ; then he re- 
vived the dictatorship, which had not existed 
for 120 years, and ruled as dictator for nearly 
three years. He took the surname of Felix 
(the Fortunate) and tried by means of his Cor- 
nelian laws to perpetuate the rule of the no- 
bles. He reorganized the Senate by the addi- 
tion of 300 members to be chosen by the 
comitia tributa. Thus the Senate for a short 
time was indirectly chosen by the people and 
acquired a representative character. He re- 
duced the powers of the tribunes and reorgan- 
ized the courts. After perpetrating acts on 
which few tyrants would have ventured, in 
order to bequeath a throne to a long posterity, 
Sulla laid down the dictature, retired into 
private life, and employed himself in writing 
his history ; he passed the remainder of his 
days in the midst of all intellectual and per- 
sonal enjoyments, and died in the infirmity 
of age, on the second day after completing the 
twenty-second book of his Memoirs (78 b.c). 

The Rise of Pompey. — On the death of 
Sulla there was still living one of the great 
leaders of the democracy, Sertorius, who, 
after many adventures, had founded an inde- 
pendent sovereignty in Lusitania. For more 
than eighteen years he baffled the Roman gen- 
erals sent against him. Just as he was, about 
to make common cause with Mithradates 



against Rome lie was m.urdered by his subor- 
dinate, Perperna. The latter was defeated 
and executed by Pompeius (72 B.C.). Return- 
ing to Italy, he annihilated the remnants of 
the gladiatorial army which had escaped from 
the sword of Crassus, who had defeated them 
on the Silarus, where their leader Spartacus 
fell (71 B.C.). 

The conquerors of Sertorius and Spartacus 
received the consulship for 70 b.c, during 
which they overthrew the Sullan constitution 
by restoring to the tribunes their former priv- 
ileges and curtailing the power of the Senate. 
Three years later Pompey endeared himself 
still more to the people by promptly annihilat- 
ing the pirates who controlled at that time 
(67 B.C.) the entire Mediterranean as far as the 
columns of Hercules and captured the vessels 
which were conveying grain to Rome. 

On the motion of the tribune Gabinius, to 
Pompey was given authority over all the Med- 
iterranean coasts, and over every city and ter- 
ritory within fifty miles of the seaboard. 
These extraordinary powers were used quite 
unexceptionably. Pompey applied them solely 
to the purposes of the war, which he began 
and ended in three months. 

Second and Third Mithradatic Wars. — 
The disasters suffered by Mithradates in his 
first war with the Romans had encouraged his 
Bosporanic provinces (the present Crimea) to 
revolt, and while trying to subdue them he 
was, without provocation, attacked by the 
Roman commander Murena (second Mithra- 
datic War, 83-82 B.C.). He was only too glad to 
make peace with the Romans, in order to sub- 
due his own rebels and begin his preparations 
for the unavoidable struggle. For the attack of 
Murena had shown him what he had to expect 
from Rome. Nothing was left undone that 
care and energy could accomplish toward the 
construction of a power which might fairly 
hope to hold its own when the time for a final 
trial of strength with Rome should arrive. It 
came (74 B.C.) when Nicomedes III. be- 
queathed Bithyniaby his last will to the Roman 
people. Had Mithradates allowed Rome to 
take possession the Pontic Kingdom would 
have been laid open to attack along the whole 
of its western border. He therefore resolved 
to seize Bithynia before the Romans could oc- 
cupy it. This brought about the final strug- 
gle (third Mithradatic War, 74-65 b.c), which 
lasted nearly nine years. The protraction of 
the war was owing, in the first place, to the 
genius and energy of the Pontic monarch, who 
created army after army, and who gradually 
learned the wisdom of avoiding pitched bat- 
tles. It was further owing to the participa- 
tion in it of a new foe, Tigranes, who brought 



41 



C.^SAR — THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. 



to the aid of Mithradates a force exceeding his 
own, and very considerable resources. 

Rome was barely capable of contending at 
one and the same time with two such king- 
doms as those of Pontus and Armenia, and up 
to the close of 67 B.C. she had made no great 
impression on either of her two adversaries. 
But now the genius of Pompey devised a 
scheme by which an immediate and decisive 
result was made attainable. His treaty with 
Phraates, King of Parthia, brought a new 
power into the field — a power fully capable of 
turning the balance in favor of the side where- 
to it attached itself. The attitude of Phraates 
paralyzed Tigranes, and the Pontic monarch, 
deprived of the succors on which he had 
hitherto greatly depended, was completely 
overmatched. Defeated near the Armenian 
border by the Romans under Pompey, and for- 
bidden to seek a refuge in Armenia, he had no 
choice but to yield his patrimony to the victors 
and to retire to those remote territories of 
which he had become possessed by conquest. 

His spirit was still unbroken, and he formed 
the bold plan of invading Italy from the north ; 
but at last his son, Pharnaces, was proclaimed 
king by the soldiers who were unwilling to 
embark in so wild a project. This broke his 
spirit, and the great warrior who had with- 
stood the power of Rome for twenty-five years 
took poison. It was ineffectual, from the fre- 
quent use he had made of poisons and anti- 
dotes, and he was, at his own request, killed 
by a faithful Gaul in his service (63 b.c). 

The death of Mithradates was looked upon 
by the Romans as equivalent to a victory ; the 
messengers who reported to the general the 
catastrophe appeared crowned with laurel, as 
if they had a victory to announce, in the 
Roman camp before Jericho. In him a great 
enemy was borne to the tomb — greater than 
had ever yet w^ithstood the Romans in the in- 
dolent East. 

Rise of Caesar. — During Pompey's absence 
in Asia, Catiline, of the noble house of the 
Sergii, entered into a conspiracy against the 
subsisting constitution (63). 

Rome fell into that peril which menaces 
everystate where there exists no well-regulated 
power to restrain the audacity of men who 
have nothing to lose and are destitute of con- 
science. Sallust relates in his " Conspiracy of 
Catiline'' how Cicero, the consul, discovered the 
plot, how he directed against it the thunders 
of his eloquence, and how Catiline, with arms 
in his hands, fell with a courage worthy of a 
better cause (62 e.g.). 

This affair made Cicero for the moment the 
leading man in Rome, but in reality he had 
the confidence of neither of the great parties. 



Cato, a descendant of the old censor, was the 
leader of the nobles ; Caesar, the nephew of 
Marius, the leader of the democracy. Of the 
three, the one whose genius was the greatest, 
and whose influence manifestly tended to pre- 
ponderate, was Caesar. Accused of complicity 
in the conspiracy of Catiline, he forced Cicero 
to admit that, on the contrary, he had given 
the information which led to its detection. 
Elected praetor in 62, he obtained, in 61, the 
government of Further Spain, where he com- 
pleted the conquest of Lusitania, and made 
himself the favorite of an important army. 
His star was clearly in the ascendant, when 
Pompey, after an absence of more than five 
years, at length returned from Asia to Rome 
(61 B.C.). 

First Triumvirate. — It seemed to many 
that Pompeius, in the newly-erected Asiatic 
provinces, had laid the foundation of his 
dominion over Rome. He came back with 
the treasures, the army, and the halo of glory 
which the future sovereign of the Roman 
state required. But while in the capital all 
were preparing for receiving the new mon- 
arch, news came that Pompeius, when barely 
landed at Brundusium, had broken up his 
legions, and with a small escort had entered 
on his journey to the capital. 

The parties breathed freely. Instead of the 
enthusiastic reception on which he had counted, 
the reception which he met with was more than 
cool, and still cooler was the treatment given 
to the demands which he presented. He de- 
manded allotments of lands for his soldiers, 
and the ratification of his Asiatic " acts " (the 
organization of Western Asia). But the Senate 
had passed from undue alarm to undue con- 
tempt. Pompey's requests were refused, his 
^^ acts'' remained unconfirmed — and his vet- 
erans were denied their promised allotments. 

Hereupon, Pompey accepted the overtures 
made to him by Caesar, and this resulted in 
the so-called First Triumvirate, which was 
nothing but a reciprocal agreement of Pompey, 
Caesar, and Crassus, to help each other to ob- 
tain the highest offices in the republic. The 
first fruit of this agreement was the election 
of Caesar to the consulate. 

During this consulship (59 B.C.), he carried 
an Agrarian law, especially in the interests of 
Pompey's veterans and the ratification of 
Pompey's organization of Western Asia. 

At the close of his consulate, Caesar obtained 
for himself the government of the two Gauls 
and of lUyricum, for a space of five years. In 
56 B.C. the Triumvirs met at Lucca to arrange 
plans for their further aggrandizement. 
Pompey and Crassus should be consuls for 
the ensuing year, and at the end of their con- 



42 



CONQUEST OF GAUL— C^SAR AND POMPEY. 



sulate should obtain such provinces as suited 
them best. Caesar required the prolongation 
of his pro-consulship for a second term of 
five years. 

This was all carried out and at the end of 
their consulate Pompey obtained the govern- 
ment of -both Spains, and Crassus that of 
Syria. 

Pompey remained in Rome, but Crassus 
went, in 54 B.C., to Syria, where he undertook, 
in 53, an expedition against the Parthians, 
during which he was killed after suffering a 
terrible defeat at Carrhae (see Plate XII. 2). 
His death made an end to the first Trium- 
virate. 

The Conquest of Gaul. — Caesar remained 
in Gaul about nine years, in the first seven of 
which he succeeded in entirely conquering all 
the land north of the Pyrenees and west of 
the Rhine. He even crossed over to Britain 
(54 B.C.), though he did not stay to conquer it. 
Caesar was not only a skilful general, but a 
great writer as well, and he has left us his 
own account of this conquest, so very im- 
portant for the future of Rome herself. By 
this conquest and Romanization of Celtic Gaul 
he erected a dam which for nearly four cen- 
turies protected the Romano-Hellenic civil- 
ization against destruction by the barbarians. 
Perceiving in the German tribes the rival 
antagonists of the Romano-Hellenic world, he 
established a new system of aggressive de- 
fence, and taught men to protect the frontiers 
of the Empire by rivers or artificial ramparts, 
to colonize the nearest barbarian tribes along 
the frontier with the view of warding off the 
more remote, and to recruit the Roman army 
by enlistment from the enemy's country. 
Caesar conquered not merely a new province 
for the Romans, but laid 'the foundation for 
the Romanizing of the regions of the West. 

It was only a late posterity that perceived 
the meaning of those expeditions to Britain 
and Germany, so inconsiderate in a military 
point of view and so barren of immediate re- 
sult. An immense circle of peoples were dis- 
closed by this means to the Romano-Hellenic 
world. This enlargement of the historical 
horizon by Caesar's expeditions was as much 
an event in the world's history as the explor- 
ation of America in the sixteenth century. 

In both cases to the old world was added 
a new one, which thenceforth was influenced 
by the old and influenced it in turn. 

Caesar and Pompey. — But not the least 
consequence of the conquest of Gaul was that 
Caesar had formed a powerful army devoted 
wholly to his interests. With it he felt him- 
self more than a match for Pompey and the 
Senate, who were showing in various ways 



that they were anxious to push him aside. The 
Senate, at Pompey's instigation, demcmded that 
Caesar should resign his command before the 
expiration of the term which had formerly 
been granted him, and refHscd\\\u\ to stand for 
the consulship during his pro-consulship, as 
had been allowed by the citizens. Caesar would 
have lost all at which he had aimed for ten 
years had he yielded to them. 

He rather " crossed the Riibicoti " and began 
his march upon Rome. Pompey retired as 
Caesar advanced, and finally crossed from 
Brundisium to Epirus without fighting a 
battle. 

This threw all Italy into Caesar's arms, w^ho 
at once occupied the seat of government, and 
took hold of the state-treasure. Italy at once 
submitted to the master of Rome, who now 
ruled the entire middle region of the state, 
from the German Ocean to the African Sea and 
from the Pyrenees to Mount Scardus. Pom- 
pey, however, still possessed the East, Africa, 
and Spain. Caesar took at once the offensive, 
and was everywhere victorious. First Spain 
was attacked (49 e.g.) and for the time reduced 
to subjection, then the war was transferred to 
the East, and its issue practically decided in 
the Thessalian plain at Pharsalia (48 B.C.). 
Pompey fled to the coast and took ship for 
Egypt by way of Lesbos. At the command of 
the minister of the young king Ptolemaeus he 
was murdered upon landing. 

Caesar and the Pompeian Party. — The 
necessity of following up his adversary and 
striking, if it were necessary, a last blow, 
drew Caesar to Egypt. He landed at Alexan- 
dria with only 4,000 men. Finding himself 
soon in a most critical position he seized and 
fortified the Pharos, burnt the Egyptian fleet, 
and sent hastily for re-enforcements. They 
soon came under Mithradates of Pergamus. 
The Egyptian army was destroyed, and Caesar 
marched to Asia to quell the insurrection of 
Pharnaces, son of the great Mithradates. 
Caesar conquered him at Zela (Plate XII. 3). 
The laconic bulletin veni^ vidi, vici (I came, I 
saw, I conquered), expressed the rapidity of 
his conquest. Pharnaces was soon afterward 
killed, and his kingdom served to reward 
Mithradates of Pergamus. The Pompeians 
gathered in the Roman province of Africa, 
where they had the support of Juba, King of 
Numidia. Caesar hurried his legions hither, 
and at Thapsus destroyed the Pompeian party 
in Africa, which submitted at once to the con- 
queror. The Pompeians who escaped from 
Thapsus established themselves in Spain, 
where they were finally conquered in the ter- 
rible battle of Munda (45 b.c), in which 30,000 
Pompeians fell. 



100 A.D. 



Plate XVII. 




Cesar's administration and murder. 



Caesar's Administration. — Caesar saw dis- 
tinctly that the time for the republic had 
gone by, that for the interest of all who lived 
within the borders of the Roman State a per- 
manent supreme ruler was required. He 
knew also that he was the only man fit at the 
time to exercise this office. But in deference 
to the Roman attachment to old forms he 
caused the Senate to appoint him at first (45) 
consul for ten years, afterward (44) dictator 
and censor for life. 

Since 48 B.C., however, he had appropriated 
the substance of royalty, under the title of 
Imperator. He appeared no longer in public 
now in the robe of consuls, which was bordered 
with purple stripes, but in the robe wholly of 
purple, which was reckoned in antiquity as 
the proper regal attirQ, and received, sitting 
on his golden chair and without rising from it, 
the solemn procession of the Senate. By the 
side of the new monarch arose a monarchical 
aristocracy, which most happily combined the 
charm of antiquity and entire dependence on 
the government with total insignificance. Cae- 
sar got, by a decree of the people, the right of 
adding new patrician gentes to the sixteen 
that still survived from hoary antiquity, and 
so established the new aristocracy of the pa- 
triciate. 

Caesar only held power for the space of 
about five years (48-44), and, although the 
greater portion of this period was occupied by 
a series of most important wars, he found, 
nevertheless, time to bring forward a series of 
measures, which were generally at once mod- 
erate, judicious, and popular. 

The Senate, which was enlarged to the num- 
ber of 900, became again, what it had been 
under the kings, an advisory council only, 
and he filled up its ranks from the provin- 
cials, no less than from the class of Roman 
citizens. 

The entire population of Transpadane Gaul 
(Northern Italy to the north of the river Po) 
and numerous communities in Gaul, Spain, 
and elsewhere were raised to the ranks of citi- 
zens. He gave his veterans lands, chiefly be- 
yond the seas, planting them, among otlier 
places, at Corinth and Carthage, cities which 
he did not fear to rebuild. He proposed the 
codification of the laws. 

He appointed a commission to execute a 
survey of the whole empire, a work of labor 
which seems to have been steadily continued, 
even through the turbulent years that followed, 
till it issued in the great map of Agrippa, a 
whole generation later. As Pontifex Maximus 
he undertook a reformation of the calendar, 
in which he was assisted by the Alexandrian 
mathematician Sosigenes. 



Murder of Caesar. — Many ux the Romans 
disliked the innovations made by Caesar. The 
nobility was deeply offended by his appoint- 
ment of Gauls, Spaniards, and even sons of 
freedmen to the Senate. Zealous republicans 
were angered at the constant attempts of Cae- 
sar's friends to hail him as king. 

The conspiracy of sixty nobles against the 
life of Caesar, formed by Brutus and Cassius, 
found so many abettors because there was en- 
grained in the Roman mind a detestation of 
the name of king. 

At a meeting of the Senate (in the curia of 
Pompey) on March 15, 44, Caesar was attacked 
by the conspirators and fell lifeless at the 
base of Pompey's statue. He was hacked 
to death with twenty-three blows, of which 
one only, it was said, would have been in itself 
mortal. 

The murderers were content to leave all 
further proceedings to the Senate, who en- 
deavored to conciliate both parties by con- 
firming the laws and ordinances of Caesar and 
at the same time passing an act of indemnity 
for his assassination. 

Marcus Antonius alone refused to sanction 
this amnesty. His funeral oration over the 
body of Caesar roused the people to fury and 
drove the assassins from the city — Decimus 
Brutus into Gallia Cisalpina, Marcus Brutus 
into Macedonia, and Caius Cassius into Syria. 
No sooner were they departed than Antonius 
contrived to obtain the substance of suprem.e 
power for himself. Having secured the co- 
operation of Lepidus, Caesar's Master of the 
Horse, who alone had an armed force on the 
spot, Mark Antony disposed as he thought fit 
of offices, provinces, estates, privileges, and 
civil risrhts. 

These proceedings were soon resisted by 
Octavianus, a youth of nineteen, great-nephew 
and adopted son of Julius Caesar. He re- 
ceived the support of the Senate, and espec- 
ially of Cicero, who denounced Antony in 
fiery orations (the Philippics). 

Antony was forced into exile, and then, 
twice defeated in battle, took refuge with 
Lepidus in Gaul, Octavianus, by the death 
of both consuls (Hirtius and Pansa), now sole 
commander of the army, marched to Rome 
and extorted his appointment to the consul- 
ship and the repeal of the amnesty extended 
to Caesar's murderers. 

Second Triumvirate. — Octavianus was 
now made commander-in-chief of all the forces 
of the Republic for the avowed purpose of 
annihilating the party of Brutus and Cassius. 
But only by the aid of Antony could he hope 
to triumph over the assassins, whose party in 
the West was in no wise contemptible, and 



44. 



THE f^ECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 



who had all the resources of the East at their 
disposal. Accordingly his late enemies, An- 
tony and Lepidus, were invited to confer with 
Octavianus on an island in the river Reno 
(near Bononia, now Bo/ogna). Here they 
formed the Second Triumvirate avowedly for 
the *' Organization of the State.'' This self-con- 
stituted Board of Three, who were conjointly 
to rule the state, was ratified by a decree of the 
people for a period of five years. 

After outlawing their private enemies and 
confiscating their property the Triumvirs 
crossed to Greece and defeated (42 B.C.) 
Brutus and Cassius in the battle of Philippi, 
in Thrace (Plate XII. 2). For a moment it 
looked as if the conquerors at Philippi would 
draw the sword against each other ; but the 
meeting of the Triumvirs at Brundisium (40 
B.C.) postponed for a while the inevitable 
struggle. 

A final division of the empire was arranged, 
Octavianus, receiving the Western provinces, 
Antony the Eastern, and Lepidus Africa. In 
the following year, however, the Triumvirs 
were obliged to make terms with Sextus, sole 
surviving son of Pompey, who had succeeded 
in creating a naval power strong enough to 
enable him to cut off the grain supplies from 
Rome. By the treaty of Misenum (39 B.C.) 
he received beside Sicily, Sardinia, and Cor- 
sica, the province of Achaia, and the consu- 
late, Sextus Pompeius, on his part pledging 
himself to supply Italy with grain. 

The imperfect fulfilment of these conditions 
by both parties occasioned a renewal of the 
war between Octavianus and Sextus Pompeius 
{Z^-Z^ B.C.), in which the latter was defeated 
off Mylae by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and 
fleeing to Asia Minor was assassinated at 
Miletus. Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily 
and claimed the island for himself, was forced 
to surrender to Octavianus, who deprived him 
of the administration of Africa and sent him to 
Circeii, permitting him, however, to retain the 
dignity of Pontifex Maximus. 

Octavianus and Antony. — With the re- 
moval of Lepidus a war between Octavianus and 
Antony became only a question of time. The 
marriage of Antony and Octavia, the sister of 
Octavianus, had failed to unite the interest of 
the rivals, especially after he had left Octavia 
behind him in Italy, and in 2>^ had reunited 
himself with Cleopatra. And when, in his in- 
fatuation, he actually ceded to Cleopatra, a 
foreigner, the Roman provinces of Coele-Syria 
and Cyprus, he furnished Octavianus with a 
decent pretext for a declaration of war. 

A popular decree removed Antony from his 
command and declared w^ar upon Cleopatra. 
Antony assembled his armaments on the coast 



of Epirus, and prepared to cross into Italy. 
Octavianus occupied the eastern shore of Italy. 
For a while the rivals watched each other 
across the Adriatic. At length (in the spring 
of 31 B.C.) Octavianus transported his army 
to Epirus. The fleet of 250 ships, under the 
command of Agrippa, defeated the fleet of 
Antony and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium 
(September 2, 31 B.C.). (See Plate VIII.). 

They fled before the fortune of the day was 
decided and sought refuge in Egypt ; their 
fleet was burned and the land forces surren- 
dered to the victor. 

Octavianus proceeded into Syria, and thence 
invaded Egypt, where he urged Cleopatra to 
rid him of his adversary. Antony, informed ac- 
cordingly, by command of Cleopatra herself, 
that she had committed suicide, fell on his own 
sword. She destroyed herself afterward and 
was buried by the side of Antony. The bat- 
tle of Actium reaffirmed the destiny of Rome, 
and the death of the Republic was illustrated 
by the annexation of Egypt. The circle of 
conquest around the Mediterranean was com- 
plete — the function of the Republic was dis- 
charged. 

Thus the military organization common to all 
the cities of antiquity at length had its effect 
— a sad effect. War being the natural condition 
of things, the weak were overpowered by the 
strong, and, more than once, one might have 
seen formed states of considerable magnitude 
under the control or tyranny of a victorious 
and dominant city. Finally one arose, Rome, 
which, possessing greater energy, patience, 
and skill, more capable of subordination and 
command, of conservative views and practical 
calculations, succeeded, after 700 years of ef- 
fort, in incorporating under her dominion the 
entire basin of the Mediterranean. 

To gain this point she submitted to military 
discipline, and, like a fruit springing from its 
germ, a military despotism was the issue. 
Thus was the Empire formed. 

After the new system had been perma- 
nently settled in the tranquillity of the Augus- 
tan age, the great change which had passed 
over the Roman dominion was found to be 
that in the place of anarchy there had come 
centralization and responsibility, which, however, 
had to be harmonized with the institutions and 
traditions of the old republic. 

To this delicate task Octavian set himself, 
and no man was ever better fitted for it. 

Octavian shared the thrifty habits and sim- 
plicity of life of the mass of the Italians. Nor 
would the more splendid qualities of the great 
Julius have served Octavian better in the work 
he had to do than his own self-control, and his 
indifference to the mere externals of power. 



45 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 



THE REGULATION OF THE EMPIRE. 

In the month of Sextilis (afterward named 
from him Augustus),29 B.C., Octavian returned 
to Rome and celebrated a triple triumph for 
his late victories. The temple of Janus was 
now closed for the third time (once under King 
Numa and once in 235 B.C.). Although the un- 
disputed master of the Roman world, Octa- 
vian determined to obtain from the Senate, as 
free concessions, the recognition of those 
privileges which he had already virtually con- 
ferred on himself. With this view he per- 
suaded them to invest him with all the highest 
offices of state, Imperator (30), Princeps Se- 
natus (28), Tribune (23), Consul (19), Censor 
(19), and Pontifex Maximus (12 B.C.). 

As Imperator {Emperor) he was not only 
head of the army, but had command of all 
the provinces ; as Princeps {Prince), or chief 
man of the Senate, he always spoke first on 
every question. Next he received the Tribu- 
nate for life and as such became head of the 
people ; and then the Consulship and Censor- 
ship for life, and as such was the chief magis- 
trate of Rome. Lastly, he became Pontifex 
Maximus {High-priest), and so was head of the 
Roman religion. Thus he gathered into his 
own hands the control over every part of the 
old government, and also held his powers for 
life. 

The title of Augustus {Majesty), conferred on 
him in the year 27 b.c, was also borne by his 
successors. 

Augustus was thirty-four years of age when 
he obtained the undisputed mastery of the 
Roman world. He kept it for the long term 
of forty-three years. This long tenure of 
power, joined to his own prudence and sagacity, 
enabled him to settle the foundations of the 
Empire on so firm and solid a basis that they 
were never, except for a moment, shaken after- 
ward. 

CONSTITUTIOy OF THE EMPIRE FROM 
-p B.C. TO 2,00 A. D. 

I. The Imperial Prerogative. — Augustus 
was the absolute commander of forty-seven 
legions, besides the auxiliary troops, amount- 
ing altogether to about 450,000 men. Over 
these forces the Senate had not the least con- 
trol, not even over the levying of the troops. 
As possessor of the censorial, tribunitial, and 
pontifical authority, his edicts and ordinances 
had the force of laws. 

II. The Senate (limited by Augustus to 



600 members). — It was on the dignity of the 
Senate that Augustus and his successors 
founded their new Empire ; and they affected 
on every occasion to adopt the language and 
principles of patricians. In the administra- 
tion of their own powers they frequently 
consulted the great national council, and 
seemed to refer to its decision the most im- 
portant concerns of peace and war. Rome, 
Italy, and the internal provinces were subject 
to its intermediate jurisdiction. Every power 
was derived from their authority, every law 
was ratified by their sanction. The debates 
were conducted with decent freedom, and the 
emperors themselves, who gloried in the name 
of Senators, sat, voted, and divided with their 
equals. 

III. The Magistracies. — The ancient magis- 
tracies were continued, but conveyed dignity 
rather than authority and were coveted chiefly 
as distinctions. The consuls were generally 
elected every two months and retained merely 
the privilege of presiding in the Senate and 
a share in the jurisdiction. Three new offices 
were created, which were entirely under the 
control of the Emperor. 

1. The Prefect of the City {prcefectus urbi), 
to whom the public order in Rome was con- 
fided. 

2. The Commanders of the Guard {prcefecti 
pmtorio), who took precedence immediately 
after the Emperor, and were, in some respects, 
his lieutenants even in civil affairs. 

3. The Prcefectus annofice, who superintended 
the supply of corn. 

IV. The Empire. — Rome, instead of being 
itself the state, became merely the capital of 
a more extended empire, the ordinary boun- 
daries of which were, in Europe, the rivers 
Rhine and Danube ; in Asia, the Euphrates 
and the Syrian desert ; in Africa, likewise the 
desert. It thus included the fairest portions 
of the earth surrounding the Mediterranean. 

The division of the provinces was made in 
such a manner that those in which no regular 
armies were kept were assigned to the Senate, 
whereas those in which armies were stationed 
belonged to the Emperor, who appointed their 
governors, who were under his exclusive con- 
trol. 

Even in the senatorial provinces Augustus 
had officers who kept watch over the govern- 
ors of the Senate. The Empire delivered the 
provinces from the oppression of the Roman 
nobles, and made them equal with Italy, both 
alike being parts of a great system of govern* 



46 



THE lULIAN HOUSE. 



ment, at the head of which was the Emperor. 
The immense dominion naturally fell into 
three parts. 

The western basin of the Mediterranean as 
far as the Adriatic, where Roman language 
and manners took root everywhere, and which 
we may call the Latin provinces. 

The eastern basin of the Mediterranean as 
far as Mount Taurus, w^iere Greek language 
and manners prevailed, and which we may call 
the Greek provinces. 

In the countries beyond Mount Taurus little 
Greek and less Latin was spoken, but the peo- 
ple adhered to their old languages and man- 
ners. We may call them the Oriental Prov- 
inces. 

The borders of the Empire were guarded by 
fortified camps, which were distributed as fol- 
lows : Three legions were sufficient for Britain. 
The principal strength lay upon the Rhine 
and Danube, and consisted of sixteen legions. 
The defence of the Euphrates was intrusted to 
eight legions. With regard to Egypt, Africa, 
and Spain, as they were far removed from any 
important scene of war, a single legion main- 
tained the domestic tranquillity of each of 
those great provinces. 

THE lULIAN HOUSE. 

Augustus ruled the Roman world from 30 
B.C. to 14 A.D., and the Romans were happy 
under his rule after all their wars. His reign 
witnessed the highest development of Roman 
literature. It was in his honor that Publius 
Vergilius Maro (70-19 B.C.) wrote his poem of 
the ^neid, to tell the deeds of ^Eneas, the 
ancestor of the lulian race. Ouintus Horatius 
Flaccus (65-8 B.C.) and Publius Ovidius Naso 
(43 B.C.-17 A.D.) also wrote poems at this time, 
and Titus Livius (59 B.C.-17 a.d.) w^rote his 
great history of Rome. Augustus was fond of 
having literary men about him, and used to 
encourage them to w^rite. Hence it is custom- 
ary to talk about the Augustan age of liter- 
ature as being that in which there were the 
best writers, and they were the most highly 
esteemed. 

Though Augustus was, for the most part, 
busy with arranging his provinces, he also car- 
ried on some wars. The most important of 
these was with the Germans, whom he wished 
to conquer. At one time the whole country 
between the Rhine and Elbe seemed con- 
quered. But the Germans rose against their 
conquerors and under the leadership of the 
Cheruscan chieftain, Arminius, annihilated, in 
the Teutoburg Forest, three Roman legions 
under Quinctilius Varus (9 a.d.). After this 
defeat the Romans gave up all attempts to 
conquer the country .beyond the Rhine, and 



held no land on its right bank except the AgrJ 
Decumates. (See Plate XVII.) 

All their endeavors were directed to prevent 
the Germans from crossing that river. Besides 
the Germans in the North, the Romans had 
to fear the Parthians in the far East. When 
(20 B.C.) the Parthian King Phraates heard of 
the arrival of Augustus in Syria he restored, 
of his own accord, the Roman standards 
which, thirty-three years ago, had been taken 
from Crassus. When Augustus died lie left 
directions to his successors not to increase 
the Roman Dominium, and up to the end of 
the Empire only two other countries were 
added (Britain, 51 a.d., and Dacia, 106 a.d.). 

The Successors of Augustus. — For fifty- 
four years the Empire remained in the family 
of Augustus. That is, down to 68 a.d. all the 
emperors were Caesars by adoption, and most 
of them were really descendants of Augustus 
through his daughter lulia. (See Genealogy.) 
These emperors were Tiberius, Caligula, Clau- 
dius, and Nero, four men whose names have 
burnt themselves forever into the memory of 
the human race. All these men in different 
ways illustrated the terrible efficacy of absolute 
world-dominion to poison the character and 
even to unhinge the intellect of him who 
wielded it. Their hands were heavy on the 
old senatorial families of Rome, heavier still 
on their own race, the long descended posteri- 
ty of ^neas. But the imperial reign of terror 
was limited to a comparatively small number 
of families in Rome. The provinces were un- 
doubtedly better governed than in the later 
days of the Republic, and even in Rome itself 
the people strewed flowers on the grave of 
Nero. 

THE FIRST ANARCHY. 

With Nero, the Iulian House had become 
extinct. This paved the w^ay for fresh civil 
commotions by practically opening the pros- 
pect of obtaining supreme power to numerous 
claimants. Henceforth the first place in the 
state was a prize at which anyone might aim, 
no family ever subsequently obtaining the 
same hold on power or the same prestige in 
the eyes of tlie Romans as the lulians. 

Gallm, who became Emperor by the will of 
the Spanish legions, was within nine months 
overpowered and slain by Otho, who was dis- 
appointed in not being adopted and declared 
successor. Successful in seizing the throne, 
Ot/io found his right to it disputed by Vitel- 
lius, commander of the German legions. 

Within three months Otho was conquered in 
the great battle of Betriacum and by a prompt 
suicide made the Empire over to his rival, 
Vitellius, who had all Otho's vices, and in addi- 



47 



THE FLAYII— CELTIC BRITAIN. 



tion was cowardly and vacillating. Within 
four months the Syrian legions refused him 
obedience and proclaimed their own general, 
Titus Flainus Vespasianus. Vitellius now w^as 
attacked on all sides, and after great tumults 
the Flavian army stormed and took Rome, de- 
feated and destroyed the Vitellians, and obtain- 
ing possession of the Emperor's person, put 
him to an ignominious death, December 21, 69. 

THE FLAVIL- 
Flavius. 



ix. Vespasianus f 79. Flavius Sabinus f 69. 



X. Titus f 81. xi. Doinitianus -j- 96. 



The just, if somewhat hard, rule of Vespa- 
sian, or the two years' beneficent sway of Titus, 
^Uhe delight of the human race^' and the miser- 
able tyranny of Domitian, had very little in 
common. But the stupendous Colosseum and 
the Arch of Titus, at Rome ; and the Amphi- 
theatre at Verona, serve as architectural land- 
marks to fix the Flavian period in the mem- 
ory of men. One other characteristic was 
necessarily shared by the whole family, the 
humble origin from which they sprung. 

While it gave a touch of meanness to the 
close and frugal government of Vespasian, it 
evidently intensified the delight of Domitian 
in setting his plebeian feet on the necks of all 
that was left of refined or aristocratic society 
in Rome. 

During his reign the Roman power over 
Britain was firmly established. 

BRITAIN. 

Celtic Britain. — The condition of the Brit- 
ish Isles prior to the Roman invasion is a sub- 
ject wrapped in obscurity. Their authentic 
history begins in theageof Alexander the Great 
{t^^t^ B.C.), when the Greeks acquired an exten- 
sive knowledge of the western and northern 
countries from Gibraltar to the mouth of the 
Vistula. At that time merchants of Marseilles 
fitted out an expedition, accompanied by Pyth- 
eas, an eminent mathematician of that city. 
Pytheas coasted along a portion of the British 
Isles, and also landed in Britain, where he re- 
mained some time, and claimed to have visited 
most of the accessible ports and taken astro- 
nomical notes. He found Britain inhabited by 
Celts. Nobody knows when the first Celts set- 
tled in Britain. And when they did come the 



48 



immigration was not all over in one year, nor 
even in one century. The invasions may, how- 
ever, be grouped in two, and looked at as made 
by peoples of both groups of the Celtic family, 
each having linguistic features of its own. The 
national name which the members of one group 
have always given themselves, is that of Gaid- 
hel, pronounced and spelt in English, Gael, but 
formerly written by themselves Goidel. The 
national name of the other group is Brython 
(Briton). They were really Gauls who came 
over to settle in the island, which was called, 
after them, Britain. They had been preceded, 
however, by the other branch. The Goidels 
were the first Celts to come to Britain. They 
had probably been here for centuries when the 
Brythons or Gauls came and drove them back- 
ward. The Goidels had done the same with 
another people, for when they landed they 
found a small, dark-haired race inhabiting all 
the British Isles. They represented the prae- 
Aryan population of Europe, and possibly were 
related to the ancestors of the Basques in 
Northwest Spain. These non-Celtic natives of 
Britain w^ere known as Ivernians. After them 
Ireland was called Ivernia, distorted by the 
Romans into Hibernia. The Ivernians seem to 
have been a nation of hunters and shepherds, 
who learned to till the soil from the Goidels, 
whom they called Feini, or wagon-men (Fen- 
ians). These non-Celtic aboriginals spoke 
what was practically one and the same lan- 
guage in both Britain and Ireland. It lingered 
the longest in the Irish province of Munster, 
where it was still the common language in the 
time of Bede (about 700). 

The Ivernians of Ireland were never extir- 
pated, but they adopted gradually the manners 
and speech of the Goidelic Celts, and it is per- 
haps from their Ivernian ancestry that the 
Irish of the present day have inherited the 
lively humor and ready wit which, among 
other characteristics, distinguish them from 
the gloomy Kymri of Wales. 

Some of the most curious and interesting re- 
mains of this Celtic period are the structures 
of immense blocks of stone which still exist in 
Britain, and though their date is disputed, yet 
their very early origin appears most probable. 
Of these, the largest, and one of the most an- 
cient, is Avebury in Wilts, and the next in size 
and magnitude of its structural stones \s Stone- 
henge, in the same county. 

Roman Britain. — While Julius Caesar was 
conquering Gaul, he learned that to the west 
of it lay an island named Britain, whose tribes 
were mainly of the same race with the Gauls, 
and gave them help in their struggle against the 
Romans. He resolved, therefore, to invade 
Britain (55 B.C.), and in.two successive descents 



A. D. 369 A. D. 



Plate XVIII. 




NOTE: Celtic Names. Latin :Name8. Old English. Modem Names. 




ROMAN BRITAIN — THE ADOPTIVE EMPERORS. 



he landed on its shores, defeated the Britons, 
and penetrated at last beyond the Thames. 
Caesar, however, was recalled from Britain by 
risings in Gaul ; and for a hundred years more 
the island remained unconquered. It was not 
till the time of the Emperor Claudius that its 
conquest was again undertaken (43 a.d.), and 
so swiftly was the work carried out by the 
Roman commanders that within thirty years 
the bulk of the country had passed beneath the 
Roman sway. Agricola (78-85 a.d.) even car- 
ried the Roman arms far into Scotland. 

He drew the first line of forts between the 
Tyne and the Solvvay. But the grand work, 
as we see it at present, was carried out by 
Hadrian, thirty-five years after the recall of 
Agricola. Hadrian built a wall eighty miles 
in length, to divide the barbarians from the 
Romans. He does not seem to have desired 
to recover the portion of country between the 
upper and lower Isthmus, which had been con- 
quered by Agricola, and protected by him with 
a second line of forts, between the Forth and 
the Clyde, which is now called " Graham's 
Dyke." Antoninus Pius, the successor of Em- 
peror Hadrian, connected these forts of Agri- 
cola by means of a deep fosse and an earthen 
rampart. The ditch extends 20 miles in length, 
is 40 feet wide, and 20 feet deep, running in 
an unbroken line over hill and dale from the 
Clyde near Dumbarton to Caeriden on the 
Forth. 

Henceforward, Britain formed a part of the 
Roman Empire. It was inhabited by a people 
of Celtic and Roman blood, a people governed 
by Celtic or Roman laws, speaking the Celtic 
or Latin tongue, and sharing, to a great extent, 
the civilization and manners and religion of 
the Empire. When the Empire became Christ- 
ianized, Britain became a Christian country. 
The outer aspect of the land was that of a 
Roman province ; it was guarded by border 
fortresses ; it was studded with peopled cities ; 
it was tilled by great land-owners whose villas 
rose proudly over the huts of the serfs. The 
Roman road struck like an arrow over hill and 
plain, and the Roman bridge spanned river 
and stream. 

Four Roman roads deserve especially to be 
mentioned : Watling Street, runs from London 
to Wroxeter ; Hermin Street, from Sussex 
coast to the Humber ; Foss Way, from the sea- 
toast near Seaton, in Devonshire, to Lincoln ; 
and Ikenild Street, from Icklingham, near 
Bury St. Edmond's, in Suffolk, to Wantage, in 
Berkshire, and on to Cirencester and Glouces- 
ter. But in spite of its roads, its villas, and 
fortresses, it remained, even at the close of 
Roman rule, an "isle of blowing woodland," 

wild and half-reclaimed country, the bulk of 



whose surface was occupied by forest and 
waste. It was only in the towns that the con- 
quered Britons became entirely Romanized. 

THE ADOPTIVE EMPERORS. 

Nerva and Trajan. — Nerva (died 98), Tra- 
jan (died 117), Hadrian (died 138), Antoninus 
Pius (died 161), Marcus Aurelius (died 180), 
and Commodus (died 192) conferred upon the 
Empire the inestimable boon of nearly a cen- 
tury of internal peace, order, and good govern- 
ment. Alike in Central Europe and in the re- 
motest provinces of the Empire, we find the 
tracesof their beneficent activity. The column 
at Rome which commemorates the Dacian 
triumphs of Trajan (completed 113 a.d.) meas- 
ures also the greatness of the excavations for 
the magnificent Forum Trajani. They, wdth 
his triumphal arch, may be regarded as con- 
structed for his own glory, but his chief w^orks, 
his mole at Centumcellae (Civita Vecchia), his 
harbor at Ancona, his roads, his bridges (across 
the Rhine and the Danube), and his aqueducts, 
were for the benefit of his subjects and justly 
increased the affection wherewith they re- 
garded him. 

Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. — His con- 
quests of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, 
however, had to be surrendered immediately 
after his decease by his successor Hadrian, 
who directed his attention exclusively to the im- 
provement of the internal administration of the 
Empire. To promote this object he travelled 
through all the provinces, everywhere embel- 
lishing the chief towns, erecting monuments 
and building frontier fortresses. 

His successor, Antoninus Pius, maintained 
the Empire in a state of peace and general 
content. After a tranquil and blameless reign 
of twenty-three years he performed his most 
meritorious act in bequeathing the Empire to 
Marcus Aurelius. 

Marcus Aurelius.— Although the embodi- 
ment of the highest Roman virtue, he had, 
nevertheless, a sad and unhappy reign. A ter- 
rible plague decimated the population, and the 
aggressive attitude assumed by the barbarians 
of the East and North forced him to occupy 
himself almost unceasingly in efforts to check 
the invaders and secure the frontier against 
their incursions. He failed miserably in the 
great object of the w^ar, which was effectually 
to repel the northern nations, and to strike 
such terror into them as to make them desist 
from their attacks. 

Commodus. — No more striking illustra- 
tion, both of the parental instinct and of the 
mischief of hereditary succession, could be 
afforded than by the change which befell the 



49 



116 A. D. 



PLATE XIX. 




1. Therm. Diocleti 

2. Thenn.Titi. 

3. Aed Martis. 

4. Amphitheatrum 

Flavium. 
6. Temphim Romae 

e Veneris. 
6. Theatrom Balbi. 



7.TheatruniMarcelli 

Port. Metelli. 

9. Pordcus Marc. 

PhiUppi. 

10. Circus Flaminius 

11. Port. Octavia. 

12. Th.Pompeji. 

13. Port. Pompeja. 



Sirutbers, Serros^i & Co., .Eagx'tuti.Si'.^S.Y. 



DIOCLETIAN. 



Roman Empire 180 a.d., when Marcus Aure- 
lius, instead of adopting a successor, left his 
power to his son Commodus, most brutal and 
profligate of tyrants. Under him the disor- 
ganization of the Empire made rapid strides 
again, because he was too weak and too con- 
scious of his demerits to venture on repressing 
disorders or punishing those engaged in them. 
The army, in which lay the last hope of Roman 
unity and greatness, was itself becoming dis- 
organized. No common spirit animated its 
different parts. The city guards, the Praetor- 
ians, and the legionaries had different inter- 
ests. The soldiers were tired of the military 
life, and, mingling with tlie provincials, en- 
gaged in trade and agriculture, or else turned 
themselves into banditti, and preyed upon the 
rest of the community. Meanwhile, popula- 
tion was declining, and production conse- 
quently diminishing, while luxury and ex- 
travagance continued to prevail among the 
upper classes and to exhaust the resources of 
the state. Decline and decrepitude showed 
themselves in almost every portion of the 
body politic, and a general despondency, the 
result of a consciousness of debility, pervaded 
all classes. Nevertheless, under all this ap- 
parent weakness was an extraordinary reserve 
of strength. The Empire, which under Com- 
modus seemed to be tottering to its fall, still 
stood, and resisted the most terrible attacks 
from without, for the further space of two 
full centuries. 

THE BARRACK EMPERORS. 

The convulsions which followed the murder 
of Commodus (192 a.d.) were the prelude to 
the reign of a class of men, whom we may call 
the Barrack Emperors, whose reigns made up 
a century as miserable and ruinous as the 
period of the Adoptive Emperors had been 
prosperous and tranquil. The open sale of the 
Imperial dignity to Didius Julianus (139 a.d.) 
by the Praetorian guards in Rome was only 
the expression in an unusually logical and 
shameless form of the motives which animated 
the Roman armies in the successive revolu- 
tions with which they afflicted the state. It 
had been discovered long ago that emperors 
could be made elsewhere than at Rome and 
in Britain, Gaul, Spain, Africa, or on the Per- 
sian frontiers, wherever the legions were sta- 
tioned, second-rate generals were perpetually 
proclaimed emperors. In the period of ninety- 
two years which elapsed between the death of 
Commodus and the accession of Diocletian, 
no fewer than twenty-three emperors were 
recognized at Rome. There are, however, 



longing to this time. Alexander Severus 
(222-235) was an excellent ruler. He fought 
courageously against the Sassanidae, who iiid 
subverted the Parthian dynasty in Persia, and 
renewed the antiquated claims to the sover- 
eignty of Western Asia. 

Decius (249-251) and Claudius (268-270) 
defeated the Goths, with whom Aurelian (270- 
275) concluded peace by the sacrifice of the 
province of Dacia. He began the erection of 
a new wall around Rome, which included the 
enlarged imperial city. He captured Zenobia^ 
Queen of Palmyra, and reconquered Egypt. 
He was rightly called Restorer of the Universal 
Empire. 

THE PARTNERSHIP EMPERORS. 

Diocletian. — This time of anarchy was 
closed by the accession of Diocletian, who 
gave voice to the passionate longing of the 
world that the age of mutinies might cease. 
With this intention he remodelled the internal 
constitution of the state and moulded it in a 
bureaucracy so strong, so stable, so wisely or- 
ganized, that it subsisted virtually the same 
for more than a thousand years. 

But the most important principle which 
Diocletian introduced into the politics of the 
Empire was administrative division. He di- 
vided the Roman world into four great pre- 
fectures, which were to be ruled, not as inde- 
pendent states, but still as one Empire by four 
partners in one great imperial firm. He as- 
sociated with himself the valiant Maximian as 
his brother Augustus ; then these two August! 
adopted and associated two younger men, 
Galerius and Constantius, as junior partners 
in the Empire, conferring upon them the 
slightly inferior title of Caesars. Ccesar Con- 
stantius governed from his capital of Treves 
the Prefecture of the Gauls (Britain, Gaul, 
and Spain) ; Atigustus Maximian from his capi- 
tal of Milan administered the Prefecture of 
Italy (Italy, Southern Germany, Northwest- 
ern Africa); Galerius, from Sirmium on the 
Danube, ruled the Danubian provinces (Nor- 
icum, Pannonia, and Moesia), while the rest of 
the Empire formed the Prefecture of the 
East (rest of the Balkan peninsula, Asia 
Minor, Syria, and Egypt), and owned the im- 
mediate sway of Diocletian himself, who fixed 
his capital at Nicomedia in Bithynia. This 
complex governmental system thus estab- 
lished by I)iocletian worked thoroughly well, 
while he himself retained the superintendence 
of the machine which he had invented. But 
when, after nineteen years of sovereignty, he 
retired from the cares of government to his 
some great names, some heroic natures be- | palace near Salona, on the Dalmatian shore ol 

50 



292—375 A.D. 



Plate XX. 



EMPIRE 




THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

IN THE TIME OF VALENTINIAN I. 364—375. 

Praefectura Galliorum _ I I 

' ' Italiae I I 

" lUyrici..... I I 

" Orientis J I 



Strulhers., Ser.oss k Co.,;Ei.«r'3 and Pi's, N.V. 



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 



"the Adriatic, his scheme soon collapsed, and 
before his death six men were all posing as 
full Roman Emperors. But by 314 a.d. two 
Emperors alone, Constantine and Licinius, 
are left, the former in the West, the latter in 
the East, each of whom is bound to destroy or 
be destroyed. At the battle of Chrysopolis 
Licinius is defeated ; soon after he is slain, and 
Constantine remains sole Emperor. 

The House of Constantine the Great. — 
Constantine the Great completed the revolu- 
tion which Diocletian had begun. He abol- 
ished the praetorians and converted their pre- 
fects into civil officers. He transferred the 
seat of government from Rome to Byzantium 
[Nova Ro??ia, Constaiitinopolis) and organized 
his court on the Eastern model. He redis- 
tricted the Empire by dividing and subdivid- 
ing the four great prefectures of the Gauls, of 
Italy, of Illyricum, and of the East into thirteen 
dioceses, these into 1 19 governments. He mul- 
tiplied the number and reduced the strength 
of the legions. Their number was raised from 
31 to 132. Their strength was reduced from 
6,000 men to 1,500 men. They were divided 
into two classes : Palatines, who were quartered 
in the chief towns of the Empire, and Border- 
ers, who were stationed upon the frontiers. 
But the crowning reform of Constantine was 
that he completely dissociated the state from 
heathenism and paved the way for the com- 
plete triumph of Christianity. He recognized 
its bishops and clergy as privileged persons, 
he contributed largely toward its endowment, 

. and conformed the jurisprudence of the Em- 
pire to its precepts and practices. 

Under his protection took place (325 a.d.) 
the first general {acinnenic) Council of the 
Church at Nicaea (325), where the doctrine of 
Arius {that the Son of God is inferior to God the 
Father) was condemned, and the doctrine of 
the Son's essential equality with the Father 
asserted in the Nicene Creed. This question 
fills an important place in the history of the 
following centuries. Many of the barbarians 
embraced Arianism, and their subsequent hos- 
tility to the Romans, or to other barbarian 
tribes, may often be traced to this circum- 
stance. 

Constantine, whose religion was a curious 
medley of Christianity and paganism, was bap- 
tized in 2^2)^. Soon afterward he died (337), 
having reigned nearly thirty-one years. 

Of Constantine's three sons, who divided 
the Empire among themselves, Constantius 
became at last sole Emperor. The Alamanni 
and Franks having invaded Gaul, he intrusted 
tlie defence of that province to his nephew 

.Julian, who drove the Alamanni and Ripuarian 
Franks across the Rhine and assigned the Salian 



Franks lands in Northern Gaul. The military 
reputation of Julian and his admirable ad- 
ministration of Gaul excited the envy of the 
Emperor, who was engaged in an unsuccess- 
ful war against the Persians, which he made 
a pretence for withdrawing several legions 
from him. These legions, how^ever, instead 
of marching eastward, proclaimed Julian Em- 
peror at Paris. Another civil war would have 
followed had not Constantius opportunely died 
(361) and left the throne open to his rival Ju- 
lian (known as the Apostate^. This last prince of 
the house of Constantine was a man of un- 
questionable ability and of nearly blameless 
moral character. A pagan from conviction, 
he hoped to bring about a reaction in favor of 
the heathen cult, which he wished restored in 
a purified form. This religious restoration 
was altogether a mistake and an anachronism ; 
and it was well for the Empire that the brev- 
ity of his reign confined the time of suffering 
and of struggle within narrow limits. 

In an expedition against the Persians, whose 
proposals of peace he had rejected, Julian 
crossed the Tigris and gained a decisive vic- 
tory near Ctesiphon, but was mortally wounded 
on his return {^^^z)- He was succeeded by 
Jovian, a Christian, who concluded a thirty 
years' peace with Persia, and died on the home- 
ward march (364). 

The House of Valentinian. — 



Gratianus Funarius. 
I 



Valentinianus i. t 375. 



Valens t 378. 



I I .. I . 

Gratianus t J83. Valentinianus ii. t 392. Galla=Theodosius the 

Great t 395. 

On February 27, 364, the tenth da}^ after the 
death of Jovian, the great officials of the Em- 
pire unanimously raised to the throne the 
Christian commander of the household troops, 
Valentinian. He at once appointed his brother 
Valens co-regent, to whom he assigned the 
prefecture of the East, the frontiers of which 
were invaded in almost every direction by the 
barbarians. Thenceforward the Empire con- 
tinued to be divided into Eastern and West- 
ern, except in the last year of Theodosius (394), 
when the two portions were reunited. 

Valentinian, whose reign was occupied by 
defending the West against barbarian inva- 
ders, associated (in 367) his eldest son Gratianus 
with him, who upon his father's death (in 375) 
acknowledged as co-regent for the West, his 
brother Valentinian II. 

About this time the Huns and Alani attacked 
the Goths, who lived in Southern Russia. A 
portion of the Visi-Goths were permitted by 
Valens to cross the Danube and to settle in 



51 



395 A.D. 



Plate XXL. 




THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 



Moesia. But trie severity of the Roman gov- 
ernor having driven them to revolt they forced 
their way into Thrace, traversed Macedonia as 
far as Thessaly, and defeated Valens near 
Adrianople (378), where the Emperor and two- 
thirds of his soldiers were slain. 

Gratianus now created his brother-in-law 
Theodosius co-regent, who terminated the war 
with the Goths by assigning to whole tribes 
of that nation tracts of waste-lands in Moesia, 
Thrace, Phrygia, and Lydia. 

In 394, when the last male of the house of 
Valentinian had perished, the whole Empire 
was for the last time reunited under Theodo- 
sius the Great. After his death (395) the divi- 
sion of administration into an Eastern and 
Western section became a permanent division 
of the Empire. 

The House of Theodosius the Great. — 
On the death of Theodosius the Great (395 
A.D.) the Empire was divided between his two 
sons, Arcadius taking the Eastern provinces 
H'liile Honorius took the Western provinces. 
Through the greater part of the fifth century 
the successors of Arcadius and of Honorius 
formed two distinct lines of emperors, of 
whom the Eastern reigned at Constantino- 
ple, the Western most commonly at Ravenna. 

But as the dominions of each prince were 
alike Roman, the Eastern and Western emper- 
ors were still looked on in theory as imperial 
colleagues charged witli the administration of 
a common Roman dominion. But this idea 
gradually disappeared. Relations of friend- 
ship between the governments are replaced 
by feelings of jealousy and dislike. The origin 
of this estrangement appears to have been the 
mutual jealousy and conflicting pretensions 
of Rufinus, the minister of the Eastern, and 
Stilicho^ the general and guardian of the 
Western emperor. This jealousy cost Rufinus 
his life. The ill-will was brought to a head 
when the Visi-Goths, of Moesia, having re- 
volted under Alaric, were induced to remove 
to a region from which they threatened Italy. 

Alaric the Goth. — When Alaric was made 
by Arcadius master-general of Eastern lUyri- 
cum (398 A.D.) it was felt at once that the West 
was menaced ; and tlie dreadful invasions 
which followed were ascribed to the conni- 
vance of Arcadius, who, to save his owm ter- 
ritories, had let the Goths loose upon his 
brother's. 

The first invasion (402 a.d.) carried devasta- 
tion over the rich plains of Northern Italy, 
but was effectually checked by Stilicho, who 
completely defeated Alaric in the battle of 
Pollentia (403 a.d.), and forced him to )-etire 
into Illyricum. 

The second invasion (408 a.d.) was more 



disastrous, because the Empire had lost the- 
services of Stilicho. Alaric marched upon 
Rome, but consented to spare it on the receipt 
of an enormous ransom (409 a.d.). But being 
insulted during the following negotiations, he 
broke them off, and once more marched on 
Rome, which he entered as its master (410 
A.D.). Honorius still refusing the terms of 
peace w4iich Alaric offered, he advanced a 
third time upon Rome, which was now given 
to pillage. Nothing pagan escaped but that 
which found shelter under Christianity. For 
Alaric was, though a barbarian, a Christian. 

Heathenism was buried under the ruins of 
heathen Rome (August, 410 a.d.). After ravag- 
ing Southern Italy, he w^as preparing to pass 
into Africa, when suddenly he fell ill and died 
at Consentia (410 a.d.). 

Placidia. — His successor, Athaulf, had nei- 
ther his talents nor his ambition. After ravag- 
ing Southern Italy for two years, he made 
peace with Honorius, accepted his sister, Pla- 
cidia, in marriage, and withdrew his army from 
Italy into Southern Gaul and Spain (412 a.d.), 
from which he drove the German tribes who 
had invaded it. He called himself the officer 
of the Roman emperor, but he really founded 
a Gothic kingdom, which was the first regular 
settlement of the barbarians inside the Roman 
Empire. Honorius survived these troubles 
more than ten years. He died childless (423 
A.D.) without making any arrangement for the 
succession. The throne was seized by John, 
secretary of the late emperor, but Theodosius 
II., the Emperor of the East, claimed the 
tlirone for his infant nephew, Valentinian, the 
son of Placidia and her second husband, Con- 
stantius. Being a child of no more than six 
years of age, he was placed (425 a.d.) under 
the guardianship of Placidia. 

Family arrangements connected with the 
betrothment of Valentinian to Eudoxia, daugh- 
ter of Theodosius II., had made over to the 
East the Western provinces of Pannonia, Nor- 
icum, and lUyris Barbara. By this union the 
Western Empire was practically confined to 
the three countries of Vindelicia, Rhaetia, and 
Italy. For the precarious possessions in Gaul 
and Spain depended entirely on the good-will 
of the Visi-Goths. It was well that Goths and 
Romans were on good terms with each other, 
for they were soon attacked by their old ene- 
mies, the Huns. 

Attila, King of the Huns, crossed the Rhine 
into Gaul, and spread devastation far and 
wide over the country. Romans and Visi- 
Goths united their arms against them. On 
the field of Chalons Attila was beaten (451 
A.D.), and forced to retreat beyond the Rhine r 
and although he endeavored to retrieve his 



52 



FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 



laiiure, invading Italy (452 a.d.) he penetrated 
no farther south than the banks of tiie Mincio, 
near Mantua. 

During this time abject terror reigned in 
Rome, where it was finally decided to try 
what effect an embassy might have. Two high 
officials were sent. Pope Leo I. volunteered 
to join them. Thanks to him the embassy won 
a peaceful and easy victory. It was the influ- 
ence exerted over Attila by the saintly majesty 
of Leo, which induced him to sheathe the 
sword and to be satisfied with promise of trib- 
ute when he might have grasped the reality of 
plunder. 

The success of the Pope, when even iEtius, 
the sole defender of Rome's waning fortunes, 
confessed that he saw only ruin before him, 
profoundly stirred the hearts of the Roman 
people. The events of the year 452 contrib- 
uted enormously to raise the Vatican above 
the Palatine, and to give the Pope the moral, 
if not yet xSxq political^ sovereignty. 

Attila survived this failure only one year, 
and his death (453 a.d.) delivered the West 
from the peril of becoming a prey to the Ta- 
tar hordes. 

The great Hunnic Empire vanished with its 
founder. He had himself built nothing that 
endured, though indirectly he had contributed 
to three of the greatest changes in Europe : 

I. The making of England by the forced 
withdrawal of the legions from Britain. 

II. The establishment of the Papal Suprem- 
acy. 

III. The foundation of Venice. 

On the death of Attila Valentinian con- 
sidered that he had no longer use for ^tius, 
and murdered him. This foul crime led direct- 
ly to the assassination of Valentinian (455), 
who was murdered by three former guardsmen 
of the Patrician. 

There was no general to succeed ^tius, as 
there was no member of the Theodosian dy- 
nasty to succeed Valentinian, who died without 
male offspring. With him the house of The- 
odosius came to an end in the male line. 

Valentinian was succeeded by Petronius 
Maximus, a wealthy member of the noble Ani- 
cian house. 

GAISERIC, THE VANDAL. During the 
Augustan age we first hear of the Vandals, a 
gigantic race living a short distance from the 
southeastern shore of the Baltic. About a 
century later (100 a.d.) they occupy the upper 
valley of the Oder. Marcus Aurelius found 
them in Pannonia, where he forced them to 
become allies of the Roman Empire (174). 
For more than two centuries they remained in 
Pannonia, when they were forced westward by 
the general upheaval caused by Alaric's inva- 



sions. In 406 we find them still in Pannonia, in 
439 they are firmly settled in Carthage. Thirty- 
tiiree years, the ordinary length of a genera- 
tion, had brought them from Eastern Europe 
to Northern Africa. 

During the journey they had ravaged south- 
ern Gaul, and set up a short-lived kingdom in 
Southern Spain which still perpetuates their 
name (Andalusia — Vandalusia). 

Boniface, the governor of Roman Africa, 
invited Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, to set- 
tle in Northern Africa to assist him against his 
enemy iEtius. He saw" his mistake only when 
it was too late. In vain he sought to persuade 
Gaiseric to leave the fruitful land into which 
he had invited him. After seven years of des- 
olating warfare, peace was concluded between 
Gaiseric and the empire, the Vandals retain- 
ing Roman Africa. Gaiseric had, however, to 
promise to leave unmolested the rich city of 
Carthage. This promise was broken on Oc- 
tober 19, 439, when Gaiseric entered Carthage 
and made all the vast wealth of the African 
capital his own. He dated his reign from this 
conquest. 

Tiie internal dissensions following the death 
of yEtius and Valentinian III., seemed to Gai- 
seric a good opportunity for attacking Italy. 

The Vandal fleet reached the mouth of the 
Tiber in the early days of June, 455. Three 
days later the Vandals entered Rome. For 
fourteen days they abode in the city and plun- 
dered it thoroughly, 

During the sack of Rome Avitus was raised 
to the imperial throne, and sent the Suevian 
general Ricimer against the Vandal fleet, then 
in the Sicilian waters. Ricimer crippled them 
for many vears to come. 

FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 
Henceforth until his death (472), the conqueror 
of the Vandals, Ricimer the Patrician was the 
virtual ruler of the Western Empire. Two 
years after his death, the Pannonian Orestes 
aspired to take Ricimer's place. But Orestes' 
tenure of power was brief. When the demand 
of the mercenaries for a third of the lands of 
Italy, was refused by Orestes, they rose in re- 
volt, and on his defeat and death they pro- 
claimed their leader Odoacer the Rugian, 
King of the Mercenaries in Italy. 

The Senate of Rome sent to the Eastern 
Emperor, Zeno, to say that one emperor was 
enough, that Italy would have him for its em- 
peror, and that Odoacer would act as his dep- 
uty. Zeno accordingly appointed Odoacer as 
Patrician in Italy. 

This emancipation of Italy and the Western 
provinces from direct imperial control has 
rightly been regarded as the opening of a new 
epoch. 



53 



HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 



FROM THEODORIC THE GREAT TO CHARLES THE GREAT. 



ROMANS AND TEUTONS. 

Theodoric the Great. — Since the death of 
Attila (453) the Ostro-Goths had re-established 
their ancient independence. They now in- 
habited the country between the Danube and 
the Save. They received tribute from the 
Emperors of the East, and in return gave them 
hostages for the maintenance of peace. 
Among these hostages was the young Theo- 
doric, the son of King Theudmir, who derived 
the same advantage from the Byzantine civil- 
ization which Philip of Macedon had drawn 
from the lessons of the conqueror of Leuctra. 
Theudmir on his death-bed declared Theodoric 
to be the most worthy, who accordingly was 
chosen to be his successor. The Emperor 
Zeno spared nothing in order to conciliate the 
young prince, and at length came to the reso- 
lution of formally surrendering Italy to him. 
Immediately the Ostro-Goths set out, with all 
their herds, from the Danube and the Save 
and approached the confines of Italy. Odoa- 
cer was three times defeated by Theodoric, 
first near Aquileia, then near Verona, and 
lastly near Ravenna. He sought a refuge be- 
hind the strong walls of Ravenna, where he 
was besieged three years by Theodoric. At 
length, compelled by famine and the clamors 
of the people, he made a treaty with Theodoric 
by which they were to rule jointly. But after 
a few days Odoacer was murdered by his con- 
queror. 

Italy and the lands to the north of the 
Alps and the Adriatic now became in sub- 
stance, though not in name, an Ostro-Gothic 
kingdom, embracing the former dioceses of 
Italy and Western Illyricum, besides the coast 
of the present Provence. The seat of this 
Gothic dominion was usually at Ravenna, al- 
though Theodoric resided quite as often in Pa- 
via and in Verona (Bern). Hence, in the hero- 
romances he is celebrated as Dietrich von Bern. 

The Teutonic Kingdoms. — Thus, about 
500 A.D. the Western dominions of Rome have 



practically fallen away from the Roman Em- 
pire. The whole West is under the rule of 
Teutonic kings. The Frank has become su- 
preme in Northern Gaul, without losing his 
ancient hold on Western and Central Ger- 
many. The Visi-Goth reigns in Spain and 
Aquitaine ; the Burgundian reigns in the 
lands between the Rhone and the Alps, and 
the Ostro-Goth in Italy. But the countries 
of the European mainland, though cut off from 
Roman political dominion, are far from being 
cut off from Roman influences. The Teu- 
tonic settlers, if conquerors, are also disciples. 
Their rulers are everywhere Christian ; the 
Franks are even Catholics. Africa, under the 
Arian Vandal, is far more utterly cut off from 
the traditions of Rome than the lands ruled 
either by the Catholic Frank or by the Arian 
Goth. To the north of the Franks lie the in- 
dependent tribes of Germany, still untouched 
by any Roman influence. They are beginning 
to find themselves new homes in Britain. The 
first place in this Teutonic West is occupied 
by Theodoric the Great. Humanity, temper- 
ance, and prudence elevated him above all 
other barbarian kings. By family alliances he 
became the relative and friend, by his power 
and wisdom the protector, of all the kings of 
the West. 

The Visi-Gothic kingdom, which stretched 
in 507 from the Pillars of Hercules to the 
Loire and Rhone, was in that year attacked by 
the Franks under Clovis. Conquered at 
Vouille, on the Clain, it seemed that the 
end had come, when Theodoric came to the 
rescue of his grandson, Amalaric. The Franks 
were defeated near Aries, which victory se- 
cured to the Visi-Goths not only their Spanish 
conquests, but enabled them to maintain their 
control of Septimania (the coast between the 
Rhone and the Pyrenees). Theodoric united 
a part of Southern Gaul to the kingdom of 
the Ostro-Goths, and undertook the govern- 
ment of that part which the Visi-Goths re- 
tained, as well as of their Spanish conquests, 



54 



PLATE XXII. 




JUSTINIAN — CLOVIS. 



as the guardian of their king, his grandson, 
Amalaric, and retained it till his death (526), 
which first severed the connection of the two 
Gothic kingdoms. 

Justinian. — After the death of Theodoric, 
his daughter, Amalasuntha, becafne regent in 
the Ostro-Gothic kingdom for her son Atha- 
laric, who died young (534). Amalasuntha 
now associated with herself, as co-regent, her 
cousin Theodat, who murdered her. This 
murder was the beginning of the end of the 
Ostro-Gothic kingdom. At that time the 
throne of Constantinople was occupied by the 
famous Justinian, to whom it seemed the first 
duty of a Roman emperor to restore the 
Roman Empire to its ancient extent. Lost 
provinces were won back in two continents. 
The Vandal kingdom in Africa (429-534) ex- 
tended in 500 over the whole of the northern 
coast of Africa, from the Atlantic to Cyren- 
aica, including the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, 
Corsica, and the western part of Sicily. They 
w^ere the greatest naval power in the Medi- 
terranean. But after the death of Genseric 
(477) their power rapidly declined. Justinian 
thought the time had come to reunite Latin 
Africa with the Empire. A short war under 
Belisarius won Africa back. About the same 
time the south of Spain was reconquered, and, 
after the murder of Amalasuntha, Justinian 
thouglit that Italy also might be won back 
from the Ostro- Goths. And so it was, after a 
war which lasted from 535 to 553, first under 
Belisarius, and then under Narses. 

Thus Justinian reigned over both the Old 
and the New Rome, and the Empire again 
stretched from the ocean to the Euphrates, 
round the greater part of the Mediterranean. 
But it collapsed soon after his death (565). 

Alboin. — In 568 the Longobards under 
their king, Alboin, climbed the Alps and con- 
quered the valley of the Po, which is still 
called after them, Lombardy. He took Pavia, 
after a siege of tb.ree years, and made it the 
seat of government. His valor as a soldier 
was equalled by his justice and moderation as 
a sovereign. From this time part of Italy was 
held by the Lombards, and part by the em- 
perors. The emperor kept the three great 
Islands (Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica), and a part 
of Southern Italy ; also Rome and Ravenna, 
and the country about them, and the Venetian 
Islands. These dominions were ruled by an 
exarch, or governor, who lived at Ravenna. 

FRANKS, BURGUNDIANS, AND GOTHS. 

Clovis. — In the beginning of the fifth cen- 
tury the defences of Gaul gave way and were 
carried at all points. Sixty thousand Bur- 



gundians established themselves between the 
Rhone and the Alps (406-411) ; two or three 
hundred thousand Visi-Goths occupied the 
southern part (412-450) ; and the Franks in- 
vaded and settled in the north (481-500). 
These Franks were not a people, but a con- 
federation, which was divided into two great 
divisions ; the Riparian Franks who occupied 
both banks (ripae) of the Lower Rhine, and 
the Salic Franks, who lived near the Lower 
Isala or Sala in Meergau or Meruwe (the sea 
district), hence called Merovingians. These 
Salic Franks gradually occupied Northern 
Gaul as far as the Loire. Clovis (Louis), 
chief of the petty tribe of the Franks of 
Tournay, excelled in gathering about him- 
self warriors of all the Frankish tribes. 
With them he defeated the Roman govern- 
or Syagrius at Soissons (485). Subsequently 
Clovis was invested with the insignia of the 
consulship by the Emperor Anastasius, who 
thereby acknowledged him as the legal repre- 
sentative of the imperial authority in Northern 
Gaul (486). 

Ten years later (496), when numerous bands 
of Alamanni threatened to pass the Rhine, the 
Franks flew to arms to oppose them. In 
similar emergencies the different tribes were 
accustomed to unite under the bravest chief, 
and Clovis reaped the honor of the common 
victory (which was not at Tolbiac). This was 
the occasion of his embracing Catholicism, the 
worship of Roman Gaul, having vowed dur- 
ing the battle to worship the God of his wife 
Clotilda if he gained the day. Three thousand 
of his warriors followed his example. As- 
sured, thenceforth, of the support of the Cath- 
olic clergy throughout Gaul, they planned to 
take away the rest of the country from the 
heretical Visi-Goths and Burgundians, the 
cruel oppressors of the Catholics. 

The union of the two divisions of the 
Frankish Confederacy, and the overthrow of 
the Alamanni, had made the Franks, under 
Clovis, the ruling people not only of North 
Gaul, but also of Central Germany. 

Their territory thus took in both lands 
which had been part of the Empire and lands 
that had never been such. This was a special 
characteristic of the Frankish settlement, and 
one which influenced the whole of their later 
history. There were Frankish lands to the 
East which never had been Roman (Teutonic 
Francia). There were lands in Northern 
Gaul which remained practically Roman un- 
der the Frankish dominion (Latin Francia). 
Their dominion was fated to be the most last- 
ing of the Teutonic kingdoms founded wuthin 
the precincts of the Empire, for the obvious 
reason that while the Goths in Spain and tlie 



55 



500—600 A.D. 



Plate XXIII. 




Struthera, Senross & Co., Engr's. and Pr;«,. N.Y. 



THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 



Vandals in Africa were isolated Teutonic set- 
tlers in a Roman land, the Franks in Gaul 
were strengthened by the unbroken Teutonic 
mainland at their back. Another reason was 
that the Franks alone received Christianity 
from the Latin Church, the dominant religion 
of the West. The Catholic Franks every- 
where found the Gallic clergy ardent auxilia- 
ries, who guided and liglited their progress, 
and gained the country over to them before- 
hand. This union of Clovis with the clergy 
of the conquered Gauls threatened to be fatal 
to the Burgundians. Their king, Gondebaut, 
humbled himself to save his throne. He 
promised to turn Catholic, gave the Catholic 
clergy his children to educate, and wound up 
these concessions by becoming tributary to 
Clovis. Alaric II., King of the Visi-Goths, 
entertaining a similar dread of Clovis, endeav- 
ored in vain to propitiate him. Clovis spoke 
him fairly, but soon after he called upon his 
Franks to free the Catholic Gauls from the 
tyranny of the heretical Goths. So zealous a 
defender of the Catholic Church could not fail 
to find her a powerful help toward victory. 
The Goths were conquered at Vouille (507), 
and Southern Gaul obeyed Clovis. By this 
victory he increased his power so much that 
he overshadowed completely the other small 
Frankish kings, and, after having isolated 
them, in a manner, by taking away their sol- 
diers, he was able with impunity to have them 
assassinated one after the other, or to kill them 
treacherously with his own hands. The 
church, preoccupied by the idea of unity, ap- 
plauded their deaths. Thus Clovis became 
the only chief of the Franks. 

The Successors of Clovis. — If he had had 
but one successor after his death (511), Gaul 
would have been more tranquil, and would not 
have been desolated by war, as was the case ; 
but he left four sons, who divided the country 
between themselves ; and again emulation 
arose among these kings as to who should have 
the most warriors, and, consequently, who 
should engage in the most wars : wars against 
the Thuringians (conquered by Theodoric in 
531), against the Burgundians, whose kingdom 
was destroyed by Childebert and Chlotar in 
532, and, lastly, wars between themselves. 
Chlotar, left sole King of Gaul in 558, was in 
561 succeeded by his four sons. After the 
death of Charibert, in 567, his inheritance was 
divided among his brothers, and this triple di- 
vision was alone henceforth of historical im- 
portance. Sigebert received Austrasia, with 
the capital at Metz (sometimes at Rheims) ; 
Chilperic, Neustria, with the capital at Sois- 
sons ; and Gontran, Burgundy, with Orleans 
as capital, in both of which latter divisions the 



mass of the population was Romano-Celtic, or 
Romanic. 

ENGLISH, SAXONS, AND CELTS. 

The English Conquest. — Britain re- 
mained a province of the Roman Empire for 
more than three hundred years, but through- 
out these centuries the province was wasted 
from time to time by inroads of the uncon- 
quered tribes of the North, whose attacks grew 
more formidable as Rome grew weaker in her 
struggle against the barbarians, who beset her 
on every border. At last the Empire was 
forced to withdraw its troops from Britain (410) 
and leave the province to defend itself against 
its numerous foes — pirates who attacked its 
shores, and highland tribes (Picts) who pene- 
trated to the heart of the country. It was to 
repulse the Picts that Britain sought the aid 
of some bands of Jutes, who landed under their 
chieftain Hengist, at Ebbesfleet, on the Isle of 
Thanet (449), and obtained lands in reward for 
their assistance. But the Jutes them.selves 
soon became as great a danger as the Picts 
whom they had repulsed ; as quarrels arose 
with Britons they called for help from their 
fatherland, and bands of Jutes, Saxons, and 
Englishmen descended one after another on 
the shores of Britain, to begin a work of con- 
quest which at last made the land their own. 
But this conquest proved to be a most arduous 
task, for the mere forest belts which remained 
over vast stretches of country formed mighty 
barriers, which were everywhere strong enough 
to check the advance of an invader, and often 
strong enough to arrest it. 

Instead of quartering themselves quietly on 
subjects who were glad to buy peace by obe- 
dience and tribute, Englislimen and Saxons 
had to make every inch of Britain their own 
by hard fighting. Instead of mastering the 
country in a few great battles, they had to tear 
it bit by bit from its defenders in a weary and 
endless strife. How slow the work of English 
conquest was may be seen from the fact that 
it took nearly thirty years to win Kent alone, 
and more than a century to complete the con- 
quest of Southern Britain, while the conquest 
of the bulk of the island was only wrought out 
after more than two centuries of bitter warfare. 
But it was just through the length of the 
struggle that of all the Teutonic conquests the 
English was the most thorough and complete. 
It was a sheer dispossession of the conquered 
people. They swept away all traces of the 
earlier state of things. As far as such a pro- 
cess is possible, they slew or drove out the 
older inhabitants. They kept their Teutonic 
religion and Teutonic language, and were thus 
able to grow up as a new Teutonic nation in 



5C 



500—577 A. D. 



Plate XXIV, 




NORTHUMBRIA. 



their new home, without any important inter- 
mixture with the earlier inhabitants. 

In the conquered part of Britain, Christianity 
wholly disappeared. When missionaries at 
last made their way into its bound, there is no 
record of there having been found a single 
Christian in the whole country. What they 
found was a purely heathen land, where home- 
stead and boundary, and the very days of the 
week bore the names of gods who had dis- 
placed Christ. It is hardly possible to con- 
ceive a stronger proof that the conquest of 
Britain had been a real displacement of the 
British people. 

It was not, however, the island of Britain 
which Englishman and Saxon had mastered — 
it was that portion of it whicli lay within the 
bounds of the Roman Empire, Even in its 
widest advance, English life stopped abruptly 
at the Frith of Forth and Clyde, as Roman life 
had stopped there before it, w4iile it penetrated 
but slowly and imperfectly into the western 
and northwestern districts of Britain, as Rome 
had penetrated but slowly and imperfectly into 
them. 

The Jutes, who had come first (449), gradu- 
ally spread themselves over the mainland of 
Kent, capturing the great Roman fortress of 
Durobrivae (Rochester), and coast land as far 
as London. A second Jutish horde established 
itself in the Isle of Wight and on the opposite 
shore of Hampshire. 

Next came the Saxons (477). ^lla, with his 
three sons, is said to have landed on the soutli 
coast. Here, between the sea and the Andreds 
Weald, he founded the colony of the South- 
Saxons, or Sussex. 

In 495 Cerdic and Cynric led another Saxon 
horde, the Gewissa, who, after having been 
reinforced in 514, within five years conquered 
the whole coast between the Andreds Weald 
and the Lower Avon. Their colony was that 
of the West-Saxons, or Wessex. 

It was in the struggle against Cerdic that 
the British king Arthur acquired his fame. 
At Camelot, in Somersetshire, his capital, he 
gathered round him the bravest of his follow- 
ers, who were known as the Knights of the 
Round Table ; and for twenty-four years he 
fought bravely for his kingdom, and conquered 
the Saxons in twelve battles. He is said to 
have been mortally wounded in a war with his 
rebellious nephew, Modred, and buried at 
Glastonbury (about 555 a.d.). Of the begin- 
nings of the East-Saxon community in Essex, 
and of the Middle-Saxon in Middlesex, we 
know little, even by tradition. The Saxons 
undoubtedly came over in large numbers ; but 
a considerable body of their fellow-tribesmen 
still remained upon the continent. 



The English, on the other hand, apparently 
migrated in a body, and took for their share 
of Britain the nearest east-coast. Their settle- 
ments extended from the Forth to Essex, and 
were subsequently subdivided into Bernicia 
Deira, and East Anglia. 

Thus the earliest England consisted of a 
mere strip of Teutonic coast, divided into tiny 
chieftainships, and girding round half of the 
eastern and southern shores of a still Celtic 
Britain. Its area was discontinuous, and its 
inland boundaries toward the back country 
were vaguely defined. Coastwise, the rivers 
and fens were their limits against one another. 
This oldest insular England is marked off into 
at least eight separate colonies, by the Forth, 
the Tyne, the Humber, the Wash, the Stour, 
the Thames, the Andreds Weald, and the Chi- 
chester tidal swamp region. 

Northumbria. — During the last quarter of 
the sixth century the strife of Englishman and 
Briton sinks into comparative unimportance. 
Tiie fluctuations of victory, and consequently 
of boundaries, between the English kingdoms 
are quite as marked as the warfare between 



the English and the Britons. 



Among the set- 



tlements of the invaders, small and great, eight 
stand out as of special importance. They are : 
Kent, Sussex (South Saxony), Wessex (West 
Saxony), Essex (East Saxony), East Anglia, 
Mercia, Bernicia, and Deira. There was, how- 
ever, a constant tendency among these eight 
states to unite in groups. Bernicia and Deira 
formed Northumbria, which reached from the 
Forth to the Humber. Wessex stretched from 
the line of Watling Street to the coast of the 
Channel ; and between these was already 
roughly sketched out the great kingdom of 
Mid-Britain. The gathering of the invaders 
into these last-named kingdoms seemed the 
natural prelude to a fusion of them into a 
single England. It is indeed the effort to 
bring about this union that forms the history 
of the English people for the next 200 years, 
and that gives meaning and interest to the long 
struggles of Northumbrian, Mercian, and West- 
Saxon kings to establish their supremacy over 
the general mass of Englishmen. 

In this struggle Northumbria took the lead. 

In 592 there reigned over that kingdom a 
most brave and ambitious king, ^thelfrith, 
the son of ^thelric, who from the moment of 
his accession took up the work of conquest 
with ruthless vigor. His advance became so 
threatening as to unite in one vast confederacy 
the whole force of the countries along his 
border. Hosts of Scots and Britons marched 
to the rampart of the Cattrail, which formed 
the boundary between Northumbria and 
Strathclyde, and here, at Daegsa's Stone (603)^ 



57 



626—668 A. D. 



Plate XXV. 




CONVERSION OF THE ENGLISH. 



they were met and routed by ^thelfrith. This 
dissolved the confederacy which had threat- 
ened Northumbria, and, while the Scots with- 
drew to their far-off fortresses, the Britons 
themselves lay at the conqueror's mercy. 
Three years later ^tlielfrith rounded the 
Peakland (Derbyshire) and marched from the 
Upper Trent upon the Roman city of Chester. 
The Britons who came to the rescue were con- 
quered, Chester fell (606), while the district 
over which the wasted city had ruled became 
Northumbrian. This victory of Chester di- 
vided the Welsh power in the North as that of 
Deorham had divided it in the South. Hence- 
forth, the Northumbrians bore rule from sea 
to sea, from the mouth of the Humber to the 
mouths of the Mersey and the Dee. The 
Eastern half of England was now divided be- 
tween Northumbria and Kent. The inevitable 
struggle between them was averted by the 
sudden death of ^thelfrith. Marching, in 
617, against Readwald, King of East Anglia 
(who had thrown off the overlordship of Kent 
after iEthelberht's death in 616) he perished 
in a defeat at the river Idle. 

The fall of ^thelfrith broke up, for the mo- 
ment, the kingdom which his sword had held 
together. On his defeat Deira rose against 
her Bernician masters, and again called the 
line of ^Ua, in its representative, Eadwine, to 
its throne. 

Eadwine, however, was as resolute to hold 
the two realms together as ^thelfrith had 
been ; and he was no sooner welcomed back 
by his people of Deira than he marched north- 
ward to make the whole of Northumbria his 
own. As it had been originally created by the 
subjection of Deira to the King of the Berni- 
cians, so it was now held together by the sub- 
jection of Bernicia to the King of the Deirans. 
Under this Eadwine the greatness of North- 
umbria reached its height. He was supreme 
over Britain as no king of English blood had 
been before. Northward, his frontier reached 
the Forth, and was guarded by a city which 
bore his name — Edinburgh (Eadwine's burgh). 
Westward, he was master of Chester, and the 
fleet he equipped there subdued the Isles of 
Anglesey and Man. South of the Humber he 
was owned as overlord by all the tribes of the 
invaders save Kent. 

He displayed a genius for civil government, 
which shows how completely the mere age of 
conquest had passed away. With him began 
the English proverb so often applied to after 
kings : " A woman with her babe might walk 
scathless from sea to sea in Eadwine's day." 

Conversion of the English. — Through 
the endeavors of his wife, ^thelburh, Eadwine 
and his court became Christians. But this 



conversion shook the Northumberland power 
over Mid-Britain, and enabled Penda to seize 
the supremacy over its English tribes, who- 
were frantically devoted to the religion of 
their ancestors. 

East Anglia, relying on the protection of 
Northumbria, still defied Penda, who, know- 
ing himself no match for Northumbria, allied 
himself, in 6^;^, with Cadwalla, the Welsh King 
of Gwynedd. The Welsh and Mercian host 
met the Northumbrians at Heathfield, and 
utterly destroyed them. Eadwine himself, and 
his son Osfrith, were slain. Penda and Cad- 
walla '' fared thence, and undid all Northum- 
bria." The death of Eadwine and his son left 
the throne open for the house of ^thelfrith, 
whose place Eadwine had taken. Oswald,, 
son of ^thelfrith, again united Deira and 
Bernicia under his own rule. Oswald was a. 
Christian, but he had learned his Christianity, 
not from the Roman missionaries, but from 
the Irish missionaries at lona, or Hii (near 
Skye), among whom he had spent his exile. 

While the Celtic Church was making rapid 
strides through the North, Roman missiona- 
ries were busy in the South. The Kings of 
Wessex and East Anglia botli embraced the 
Christian faith. But Mercia remained as 
heathenish as ever. Oswald tried, in 641, to 
free Christian East Anglia from Penda's grasp ; 
but he was defeated and slain at the Maser- 
feld. For a few years after this victory Penda 
stood supreme in Britain. Deira in the North, 
Wessex in the South, had to acknowledge his 
supremacy, and threw off the Christian faith. 

But in 655 Penda made a last attempt against 
Northumbria, which he had harried year after 
year, and was met by Oswiu, Oswald's succes- 
sor, at Winwidfield, near Leeds. The Chris- 
tians were successful, and Penda was slain. 
His son, Paeda, the Christian ealdorman of the 
Middle English, succeeded him, and the whole 
of Mercia became Christian after the Celtic 
type. 

Heathendom was now fairly vanquished. 
The next trial of strength must clearly be be- 
tween Rome and lona. To allay the discord, 
King Oswiu summoned (664) a synod at Stre- 
oneshalch (Whitby). It decided in favor of 
Rome. This decision not only gave England 
a share in the religious unity of Western 
Christendom — it gave her a religious unity at 
home. 

Greatness of Mercia. — The eighth century 
is taken up with the greatness of Mercia, 
which, having risen to the second place under 
Penda and Wulfhere, now assumed the first 
position among the Teutonic kingdoms, 
^thelbald (716-755) was one of the most pow- 
erful Mercian kings. Since 726 he made con- 



58 



796—827 A. D. 



Plate XXVI. 




3IERCIA AND WESSEX. 



tinual raids into Wessex, till the siege and 
capture of the royal town of Somerton (733) 
made an end to the independence of the 
Gewissas. For twenty years the overlordship 
of Mercia was recognized by all Britain south 
of the H umber. It was at the head of the 
forces, not of Mercia only, but of East Anglia 
and Kent, as well as of the West Saxons, that 
^thelbald marched against the Celts on his 
western frontier. For twelve years he was 
quite successful ; but in 754 a general rising 
forced him to call his whole strength to the 
field. He met the enemy at Burford. A sud- 
den panic seized the Mercian king, and the 
supremacy of Mid-Britain passed forever away 
as ^thelbald fled, first of his army, from the 
field. Not only Wessex had been freed by 
this battle, but ^thelbald's own throne seems 
to have been shaken, for in the next year he 
was murdered. He was succeeded, after a 
short interval, by Offa (758-796), whose reign 
of nearly forty years is the first settled period 
in English history. Offa, on his accession, 
found Mercia confined to narrow bounds. 

Like Northumbria before, she ceased mak- 
ing war upon her Teutonic kindred, and 
turned upon the Welsh. Offa drove the Prince 
of Powyss from his capital, Pengwyrn, whose 



gle of these under-kings against the headking 
which distracted the energies of the Gewissas. 
But whenever these causes of distraction were 
removed, each interval of order showed that 
the warlike vigor of the people was as great as 
of old. 

When Ceadwalla, in 685, gathered all the 
Gewissas beneath his sway, he soon again set 
up the West-Saxon supremacy over Sussex, 
and made the Isle of Wight his own, after a 
massacre of its inhabitants. Failing in his at- 
tack on Kent, he abdicated {6S8), and went on 
a pilgrimage to Rome. His successor, Ina, 
conquered Kent in 694. This conquest carried 
Ina's rule along the whole southern coast from 
the river Axe to the Isle of Thanet. Even 
London owned Ina as its lord. In 710 he at- 
tacked Dyrnaint, tlien ruled by King Ger^int, 
and tore from it the valley of the Tone. He 
secured his conquest by the foundation of the 
fortress of Taunton (the Town on the Tone). 

But in 726, after thirty-three years of a glo- 
rious reign, the increasing anarchy made Ina 
throw down his crown in disgust and with- 
draw from Wessex, to die a pilgrim at Rome, 
^thelbald. King of Mercia, profited by the 
increasing anarcliy which followed Ina's with- 
drawal. In 733 Wessex acknowledged ^thel- 



older name he replaced bv Scrobsbyryg (Town | bald's supremacy, and for twenty-one years it 



m the Scrub — Shrewsbury). Carrying his 
ravages into the heart of Wales, he conquered 
the land between the Severn and the Wye. 
His dyke from the Dee to the Severn, and the 
Wye, marked the new limits of the Welsh and 
English borders. It still bears the name of 
Offa's Dyke. 

Under Offa, Mercia sunk into virtual isola- 
tion. At his death (759) it seemed that the 
threefold division of England w^as to be per- 
manent. Northumbria had definitely sheered 
off into provincial isolation, and the revival of 
Wessex completed that parting of the land 
between three states of nearly equal power 
out of whicli it seemed impossible that unity 
could come. 

Rise of ^A^essex. — Since their overthrow at 
Faddiley (597), the West Saxons had been 
weakened by anarchy and civil war. So terri- 
bly had their strength been broken that even 
the Celts had in turn assailed them, while 
both Northumbria and Mercia had attacked 
and defeated them. But, in spite of these 
losses, the real strength of the Gewissas had 
been in no way lessened. Their defeats had 
been simply owing to their internal divisions, 
not in the body of the people itself, but simply 
in their kingly house. Each fragment of Cel- 
tic ground, as it was w^on, seems to have been 
made into an under-kingdom for some one of 
the royal kin ; and it was tlie 



continual strug- 



was ruled by his thegns. ^tlielbald's defeat 
at Burford (754) restored the independence of 
Wessex ; but the battle of Bensington (779) 
confined Wessex to the South of the Thames. 
This battle seemed to settle the division of 
Teutonic Britain into three equal powers, 
Wessex being now as firmly planted south of 
the Thames as Northumbria nortli of the 
Humber. But in 786 their progress was 
stayed by a contention for the throne between 
Beorhtric and Ecgberht. Banished from Wes- 
sex, Ecgberht took refuge with Charlemagne, 
and there he learned to understand the rising 
statesmanship of the Prankish race, and of the 
restored Roman Empire. The deatii of his 
enemy, Beorhtric, 802, gave him the throne of 
Wessex. For tw^enty years Ecgberht was en- 
gaged in consolidating his ancestral dominion 
and conquering the last fragment of Celtic 
dominion in the southwest. 

While Wessex was thus consolidating the 
South, Mercia sunk helplessly into the anarchy 
from which the southern kingdom had 
emerged, and when, notwithstanding this, the 
Mercian King, Beornwulf, in 825, attacked 
the West-Saxons, at Ellandun, he was totally 
defeated, and Kent and Essex acknowledged 
the supremacy of the conqueror. Three years 
later (828) the West-Saxon army crossed the 
Thames. Tlie Mercian king fled helplessly 
before it, and the realm of Penda and Offa 



59 



RISE OF ISLAM. 



bowed without a struggle to its conqueror. 
He now marched northward against the North- 
umbrians. Its thegns met Ecgberht on their 
border, at Dore, in Derbyshire, and owned 
him as their overlord. Thus, the West-Saxon 
kingdom absorbed all the others. But though 
all the Teutonic states in Britain had submit- 
ted to Ecgberht's sway, he had not become a 
king of England. His conquests had given 
him a supremacy over his fellow-kings, by 
which they and their people were bound to 
pay him tribute and to follow him in war. 
But their life remained in all other matters as 
independent as before. It was only by long 
and patient effort that this vague supremacy 
of the West-Saxon kings could develop into a 
national sovereignty, and the effort after such 
a sovereignty had hardly begun, when it was 
suddenly broken by the coming of the Danes. 

THE ARABIC ASCENDENCY- 

Rise of Islam. — During the seventh cen- 
tury, a new nation, that of the Arabs, now be- 
came dominant in a large part of the lands 
which had been part of the Roman Empire, 
as well as in lands far beyond its boundaries. 
The scattered tribes of Arabia were first gath- 
ered together into a single power by Mo- 
hammed the Prophet. When he began his 
career at Mecca (622) Arabia was hardly 
known to the rest of the world. Fifty years 
after his death (632) his followers were already 
ruling the land from the Indus in the East, 
and the Caucasus in the North, to the coasts 
of the Atlantic in the West. The world never 
before saw a quicker or more complete inva- 
sion. Mohammed had succeeded in setting 
the ardent imaginations of his countrymen 
on fire with the idea of a holy war. In short, 
vigorous sentences he preached to them the 
greatness and power of one Almighty God. 
Man could alone be just in that he learned 
God's will from the Prophet and then fulfilled 
the Prophet's ordinances. Thus, his mission 
from the first was not one of instruction, but 
of subjugation; unbelievers were rebels, who 
were to be smitten with the edge of the sword, 
Jind forced to conform to his doctrines or to 
pay tribute. War necessarily arose out of the 
first principles of his religion ; and no sooner 
was he acknowledged in Mecca than he sent 
threatening admonitions to the Persian king 
and the Byzantine emperor (630). The scorn 
with which they answered the unknown fan- 
atic was met by the most furious attacks ; 
neither Roman nor Persian troops were able 
to withstand the masses of brave men which, 
with the rapidity of lightning, inexhaustible, 
and with exulting contempt of death, spread 



in torrents over the coimtry. They had no 
other thought than fanaticism for the Caliph, 
no other delight than war against the infidel, 
no other hope than entrance into Paradise. 

" They dwell," says one of their poets, '' be- 
neath the shadow of their lances, and cook 
their food upon the ashes of the conquered 
towns." 

The Orthodox Caliphs.— This impulse, 
communicated to the Arabian race by the 
enthusiasm of Mohammed, did not cease with 
his death. The whole nation had been roused 
to an unexampled pitch of religious zeal and 
were eager to continue the work which he 
had begun. Accordingly the reigns of the 
caliphs — as the successors of Mohammed were 
called — were one long series of invasions, wars, 
and conquests, undertaken for the express 
purpose of adding new countries to the Mo- 
hammedan Empire. The first four caliphs, all 
near relatives and companions of the prophet, 
were : 

Abu-Bekr (632-634), the father-in-law of Mo- 
hammed, who collected the prophet's sayings 
into a book called the Koran. Under him Sy- 
ria and Mesopotamia were subdued. 

Omar (634-643), another father-in-law of 
Mohammed. Under him Egypt was con- 
quered, and the whole of the northern coast of 
Africa was overrun. 

Othman (643-656), a son-in-law of Mo- 
hammed, who conquered Persia. 

Ali (656-661), another son-in-law of Mo- 
hammed (husband of Fatima). During this 
period the seat of the Caliphate was the town 
of Kufa on the Euphrates, Mecca, however, 
retaining its pre-eminence as the holy city, 
whither all true Moslems were to go in pil- 
grimage and toward which they were to turn 
in prayer. 

The Civil War. — Ali was scarcely placed 
in the Caliphate before he was forced to send 
an army against Moawyiah, the governor of 
Syria, whose claims to the supreme power 
were supported by Amru, the conqueror of 
Egypt. Three men, with a view to removing 
the causes of discord, planned the murder of 
Ali, Moawyiah, and Amru. The last two es- 
caped the fate intended for them, but Ali fell 
a victim to the conspiracy. Moawyiah was 
now recognized as Caliph. To secure his 
power he caused the murder of the two sons 
of Ali, Hassan and Hosain. These youths 
were ever regarded as martyrs by the friends 
of the house of Ali, the Shiites. They 
are a party who neither acknowledge All's 
predecessors nor his successors as lawful 
Caliphs ; but they pay homage to a sacred 
family descended from him, of which the last 
individual Mohammed Montatar (born 868 



60 



THE OMMAIAD AND ABASSIDE CALIPHS. 



A.D.) is supposed by them still to survive in 
concealment, that he may appear as sovereign 
in the end of time. Of this persuasion is 
Persia. During the whole of June the Shiites 
keep fast in honor of Ali and his sons Hassan 
and Hosain ; they lament them by night, when 
theatrical exhibitions are performed, repre- 
senting their battles and assassination ; effigies 
of their bodies, stained with blood, are carried 
in procession through the streets, and every 
Shiite learns to execrate the Sunnites, the ene- 
mies of Ali. Of this latter sect are the Otto- 
man Turks. 

The Ommaiad Caliphs. — Moawyiah suc- 
ceeded in making the office hereditary instead 
of elective, as it hitherto had been, and thus 
established the dynasty of the Ommaiads, so- 
called from Ommaya, an ancestor of Moawyiah. 
Under these Caliphs the political centre of the 
Empire was transferred to Damascus. Here 
the Caliph resided, while his emirs led his 
troops in new directions, and governed distant 
provinces in his name. Cadis or judges were 
likewise appointed to administer the laws of 
the Koran, in a few of the principal cities ; 
and in every town there were preachers, who, 
acting as the deputies of the Caliph in his 
spiritual capacity, read and expounded the 
Koran on Fridays in buildings called Mosques. 
A separate class of functionaries, called muftis^ 
prepared such new laws as were necessary to 
carry out the provisions of the Koran. 

The Caliphate attained its fullest extent 
during the reign of Welid I. (705-715). In the 
reign of his predecessor, Abd-Almelik, the 
Arabian arms had been carried into Morocco 
and the Atlantic coast of Africa ; and his 
Emir, Okba, had even meditated the invasion 
of Spain. That great exploit, however, was 
reserved for Muza, the governor of Africa, 
who sent his lieutenant, Tarik, with a strong 
force of Moors and Arabs to effect the con- 
quest of the Peninsula. Tarik landed at the 
point which to this day in its name Gibraltar 
(Gibel-al-Tarik, Hill 'of Tarik), immortalizes 
his name. In the great battle of Xeres de la 
Frontera, near the Guadalete (711), which 
lasted from Sunday to Sunday, the fate of the 
Visi-Gothic kingdom was decided. Within 
four years they were not only masters of Spain 
(except the mountainous tract in the north- 
west), but they had even passed beyond the 
Pyrenees into the province of Gothia (or 
Septimania), the small remnant of the Gallic 
dominions of the Visi-Gothic kings. 

Narbonne, Aries, Nismes, all became for a 
while Mohammedan cities. Muza even con- 
ceived the plan, which, though vast, was not 
too- extensive for men accustomed to subdue 
the world — by two great simultaneous attacks 



to render the whole of Christendom subservi* 
ent to the Caliphate. 

For this purpose an army was to advance 
from Asia Minor toward Constantinople, and 
another to march across the Pyrenees upon 
the Empire of the Franks ; then from East and 
West to unite their triumphant forces in Rome, 
the centre of Christianit)'. Luckily for Eu- 
rope, Muza at this time fell into disgrace with 
the Caliph, and his great project was only 
carried into effect piecemeal, and conse- 
quently without success. They began by at- 
tacking Constantinople, and blockaded that 
town for three years by sea and land. But 
the emperor, Leo III., defended himself with 
great courage, destroyed the Mohammedan 
fleet with the newly-invented Greek fire, and 
at last, in 718, forced their army to retire. 

Ten years then elapsed before the Empire 
of the Franks was attacked in the West. In 
Muza's time this attack might have been suc- 
cessful, because the Franks were then torn by 
internal discord. Since then, however, Pepin 
of Heristal had united the whole Prankish 
power, as major-domus (mayor of the palace) 
of the whole kingdom of the Franks (678). 
He called himself dux et princeps Francorum 
(leader and prince of the Franks). 

Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine, defeated by the 
Arabian invaders, sought help from Charles 
Martel, the son and successor of Pepin of 
Heristal. This Charles Martel, one of the 
bravest warriors of any time, beat the Arabian 
and African hordes in six hotly-contested 
battles between Tours and Poitiers (732). 
" The people of the East," says one of the 
Spanish historians, " the German race, men 
deep-chested, quick-eyed, and iron-handed, 
have crushed the Arabs." The battle of Tours 
did not make changes, but hindered them ; 
but before long the one province which the 
Saracens held beyond the Pyrenees, that of 
Septimania, or Gothia, was won from them by 
the Franks (755). 

The Abasside Caliphs. — Only eighteen 
years after the battle of Tours the house of 
the Ommaiades, under whom Islam had ex- 
tended itself from the Atlantic to the Indus, 
was overthrown by the adherents of the de- 
scendants of Ali. They were especially nu- 
merous in Persia and there the revolt against 
the Ommaiades broke out. They proclaimed 
as Caliph Abu-1-Abbas, a descendant of Abbas, 
uncle of Mohammed. He took the name 
Abd-AUah and became the founder of the sec- 
ond Arabic Dynasty, called after his progenitor 
the Abassides. A bloody persecution was be- 
gun by him against the Ommaiades, one of 
whom, Abd-Errhaman, succeeded in escaping 
to Spain. Here the Saracens, who took the 



61 



716 A.D. 



Plate XXVII. 




PEPIN OF HERISTAL. 



part of the persecuted dynasty, received him 
with open arms and accepted him as their 
Emir. Thus there arose distinct Mohammedan 
powers in the world: 

I. The Caliphs of Bagdad, who governed 
through their Emirs the Arabic Empire prop- 
er, extending in a long tract westward from 
India to the shores of the Atlantic. The 
capital of this Empire was transferred to Bag- 
dad (on the western bank of the Tigris), which 
had been built (762) on a magnificent scale by 
Almansor (second Abasside Caliph) and soon 
became the capital of the commercial enter- 
prise and civilization of the Eastern world. The 
golden age of the Caliphate of Bagdad covers 
the latter part of the eighth and whole of the 
ninth century of our era, and was adorned by 
the reigns of such princes as Almansor and 
Haroun-al-Raschid (see Genealogy). During 
this period, science, philosophy, and literature 
were most assiduously cultivated by the Ara- 
bian scholars, and the court of the Caliphs 
presented in culture and luxury a striking 
contrast to the rude and barbarous courts of 
the kings and princes of Western Christen- 
dom. 

Bagdad remained the abode of the Abassides 
for a period of five hundred years. Their 
caliphate was extinguished in the year 1258 



A.D. by the Mongols, w^ho stormed Bagdad (the 
only city at that time in possession of the Ca- 
liphs), and for seven days deluged its streets 
with blood. Motazem, the fifty-sixth and last 
Caliph, was sewn up in a cow's hide and 
dragged by the conquerors through the streets 
of his capital. 

II. The Emirs of Cordova, whose realm at 
one time extended from Gibraltar to the river 
Aude, in Languedoc. Their capital was the 
ancient city of Cordova, after which the realm 
was named the Emirate of Cordova. Until 
929 they acknowledged the spiritual sway of 
the Caliphs of Bagdad. Then, however, Abd- 
Errhaman III. was proclaimed Caliph of the 
West. This Caliphate of Cordova lasted not 
much longer than a century (929-1031). 

III. The Fatimite Caliphs. — About the 
same time the Arabs in Spain refused their 
spiritual allegiance to tlie Caliph of Bagdad, a 
third caiipiiate arose in Tunis. Obaidallah, a 
lineal descendant of Hosain (see Genealogy), 
was acknowledged as Caliph in Tunis. His 
great-grandson, Muiz, conquered Egypt and 
made Cairo the seat of the Fatimite Caliphs (so- 
called after their ancestress, Fatima, daughter 
of the prophet). It lasted from 969 till 1171. 

After the partitions of the caliphate scarcely 
any new conquests were made by the Arabs. 



FROM THE CORONATION OF CHARLEMAGNE IN 800 A.D. TO THE BE- 
GINNING OF THE CRUSADES IN 1096 A.D. 



THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

Pepin of H^ristal. — The Merovingians 
rapidly degenerated, and the reins of gov- 
ernment gradually dropped from their palsied 
hands. Entrusting, gradually, all functions 
of government to their superintendents of the 
royal household {inajores domus, mayors of the 
palace), they became mere puppets in their 
hands. 

The race of the Pepinidae acquired an he- 
reditary claim to the office of Major-Domus in 
Austrasia. Pepin of Heristal, Major-Domus 
in Austrasia, became, by the victory of Testry 
(687), also Major-Domus in Neustria, and 
called himself henceforth Dux et Princeps 
Francorum. Although at first no change of 
dynasty followed this victory of the nobles 
over the popular party, it set the rule of the 
Merovingians practically aside for that of the 
leader of the Eastern Franks, Pepin of Heris- 
tal. The son of the conqueror of Testry was 



that Charles Martel who saved Christendom 
in the battle of Tours (732). 

King Pepin. — Pepin, the son of Charles 
Martel, saw in Rome the one source of relig- 
ious authority which could give a sacred sanc- 
tion to his rule. Rome saw in the Franks the 
one state which could save her from the ambi- 
tion of the Lombards and the pressure of the 
Eastern emperor, and consequently the union 
of the two powers was soon drawn closer by 
mutual needs. In 751 the voice of Rome pro- 
nounced that the honors of sovereignty over 
the Franks should fall to the actual holder of 
power. Childeric, the last of the Merovin- 
gians, was sent into a monastery at St. Omer, 
and Pepin, lifted on a shield, on the Field of 
Mars, at Soissons, was declared King of the 
Franks (March, 752). 

Next year King Pepin repaid his debt to 
Rome by crossing the Alps and delivering the 
Papacy from the pressure of the Lombards. 
He took from them the province of Ravenna, 



G2 



742—843 A. D. 



PLATE XXVIII. 




CHARLEMAGNE. 



which he gave to the Holy See. This dona- j Chapelle, principallv^ on account of its warm 
tion was the origin of the temporal power of I springs. The essential character of the em- 
the Pope. The city of Rome, however, was | pire was the perfect blending of the spiritual 
not included in this ,2:ift. Two important acts j and temporal elements. The union between 



had been accomplished by King Pepin the 
Short : a revolution in France — the Major- 
Domus had become the sovereis^n ; a revolu- 



emperor and pope served as a model for that 
between count and bishop. Not only was the 
secular power to lend its arm to the spiritual, 



tion in Christendom — the Bishop of Rome but the spiritual to aid the temporal by its 
had become a temporal sovereign. ' excommunications. The great empire re- 

Charlemagne (768-814), on succeeding his [ minds us of a vast neutral ground in the 
father, Pepin, thoroughly developed his pol- j midst of a world filled with carnage and de- 



icy. At the urgent entreaty of Pope Stephen 
III. he entered Italy and conquered the 
Lombards, and placed their king, Deside- 
rius, in a monastery (774). Lombardy was 
not incorporated with the Prankish realm. 
Charlemagne called himself King of the 
Franks and Lombards. He also bore the ti- 
tle of Patrician of the Romans, which made 
him virtually sovereign of Rome, and ex- 
tended his dominion from the ocean to the 



vastation, where an iron will imposes peace 
on forces generally in a state of mutual 
hostility and destruction, and fosters and 
shelters the germ of civilization, so guarded 
was it on all sides by impregnable marches, 
or marks. Their defence was entrusted to 
Markgraves {Marquesses). Dukes governed 
provinces, but their power the emperor tried 
to reduce. For this purpose the whole em.- 
pire was divided into districts, which were 



frontiers of Beneventum. His plan was to j entrusted to counts. Imperial deputies (mi'ssi 
unite the fragments of the Western Empire. ! doniini\ lay and ecclesiastical, together visited 
To effect this he used two pow^erful sentiments ' all parts of the empire to examine and report 
— patriotism and religion. Thus, while he i as to their condition, to hold courts and to 
cherished the institutions which the Teutons ; redress wrongs. There were appeals from 
loved, he protected the Church, and carried j them to the imperial tribunal over which a 
the cross at the head of his army. He under- ' Count Palatine presided. Twice in the year 
took fifty-three expeditions against twelve dif- 1 great assemblies were held of the chiefs and 
ferent nations. Gauls, Saxons, Danes, Sara- 1 people to give advice as to the framing of 



cens, all felt the prowess of his arms. Upon 
the pagan Saxons burning the church of De- 
venter, lie commenced a war with them which 
lasted thirty three years, and ended in their 
compulsory Christianization. True to his own 
and his father's understanding with the Pope, 
he invariably insisted on baptism as the sign 
of submission, punishing with appalling bar- 
barity any resistance. Under such circum- 
stances it is not to be wondered at that clerical 
influence extended so fast ; yet, rapid as was 
its development, the power of Charlemagne 
was more so. In the Church of St. Peter at 
Rome, on Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo 
III. suddenly placed on the head of Charle- 
magne a crown, amid the acclamations of the 
people, " Long life and victory to Charles, the 
most pious Augustus, crowned by God, the 
great and pacific Emperor of the Romans." 

The Empire. — The domains over which 
Charlemagne ruled with imperial authority 
were quite as ample as those embraced within 
the most extended limits of the Old Roman 
Empire in the West. His empire was bounded 
bv the Ebro in Spain, by the Garigliano in 



laws. The enactments of these assemblies are 
collected in the capitularies. They give us a 
deep insight in the social condition of those 
times. 

The French form of the iiTivciQ {Charlemag?ie) 
under which the emperor has passed into his- 
tory, has fostered the misconception that he 
was a French king, but in reality Charles 
(Karl) was above all things a German. He 
was in language, in ideas, in policy, and tastes^ 
a German and not a Latin king, and his char- 
acteristic work was to lay the foundations of 
modern and civilized Germany, and indirectly, 
of the new commonwealth of nations, which 
was to rise in the West of Europe. 

The work of Charlemagne perished with 
him. His feeble son, Louis (814-840), quickly 
dissipated this vast inheritance among his 
children. 

Immediately after his death (840) a quarrel 
arose among his sons about the inheritance, 
Lothar, as emperor, claiming the whole. A 
battle was fought in 841, near Fontenay, in 
which Lothar \vas defeated. The war, how- 
ever, continued until 843, when Lothar found 



Italy, by the Eider in Denmark, by the Raab himself compelled to conclude with his broth- 
in Southern Germany, and by the Oder in 1 ers the famous treaty of Verdun. In this par- 
Northern Germany. The district between j tition treaty, the Teutonic principle of equal 
Elbe and Oder was never thoroughly con- 1 division among heirs triumphed over the 
quered. Charles resided generally in Aix-la- I Roman one of the transmission of an indi- 

63 



THE DAXISII CONQUEST OF ENGLAND. 



visible empire ; the practical sovereignty of 
all three brothers was admitted in their respec- 
tive territories, a barren precedence only re- 
served to Lothar, with the imperial title which 
he already enjoyed. A more important result 
was the separation of the Gallic and German 
nationalities. Their difference of feeling took 
now a permanent shape : modern Germany 
proclaims the era of 843 the beginning of her 
national existence. 

I. Charles the Bald received Francia Occi- 
dentalis, or Neustria and Aquitaine. A cor- 
rupt tongue was spoken here, equally removed 
from Latin and from modern French. 

II. Lothar, who, as emperor, must possess 
the two capitals, Rome and Aix-la-Chapelle, 
received a long and narrow realm, stretching 
from the North Sea to the Mediterranean. It 
had no national basis, and soon dissolved into 
the separate sovereignties of Italy, Burgundy, 
and Lotharingia, or Lorraine. 

III. Louis the German got, in general, the 
country between the Rhine and the Elbe. 
Throughout these regions German was spoken. 
Under Charles the Fat all the Frankish do- 
minions, except Burgundy, were again united 
(884). On his deposition, 887, they split asunder 
again. We have now four distinct kingdoms : 
those of the Eastern and Western Franks (the 
forerunners of Germany and France) ; the 
kingdom of Italy and Burgundy (sometimes 
forming one kingdom, sometimes two). Loth- 
aringia remained a borderland between the 
Eastern and Western kingdoms, attached some- 
times to one, sometimes to the other. 

THE DANISH CONQUEST OF ENGLAND. 

First Raids. — In the long period of nearly 
four centuries which had elapsed between the 
Jutish conquest of Kent and the establishment 
of the West-Saxon overlordship, the politics 
of Britain had been wholly insular. The island 
had been brought back by Augustine and 
his successors into ecclesiastical, commercial, 
and literary union with the continent, and now 
the Danish invasions were to pave the way for 
a political union with it. The Danes were a 
Scandinavian tribe, who first came in small 
bands, upon light boats, which they handled 
with extraordinary skill and boldness. Since 
831 they levied tribute from all the North of 
Ireland. Their action in the Irish seas roused 
the Welsh to fresh hopes of freedom, espe- 
cially as it was not as foes, but as friends, that 
they were offering themselves to them for a 
raid on their common enemy. All Cornwall 
rose against the West Saxons. But Ecgberht 
Conquered the league of Danes and Welsh, at 
Hengestesdun (835), which victory won rest 



64 



for his own Wessex during the remainder of his 
reign (until 836). 

His son, ^thelwulf, also fought strenuously 
in the defence of his realm, and this gained for 
it a little respite ; for eight years the Danes 
left the land, and ^thelwulf died in peace 
(858). But these earlier attacks had been mere 
preludes to the real storm. When it burst in 
full force upon the unhappy island, it was no 
longer a series of plunder-raids, but the inva- 
sion of Britain by a host of conquerors, who 
settled as they conquered. 

The Conquest. — In 866 the Danes landed 
in East Anglia, and marched in the next 
spring across the Humber upon York. North- 
umbria at once submitted, and Mercia was 
only saved by a hasty march of King ^thel- 
red. 

The Danes now turned to East Anglia, whose 
underking, Eadmund, being captured, was 
bound to a tree and shot to death with arrows. 
His martyrdom made him the popular saint 
of the eastern shore ; his figure, in after times, 
adorned the window of many a church, and 
the stately abbey of St. Eadmundsbury rose 
over his relics. East Anglia was divided 
among the Danish invaders, and their leader, 
Guthrum, became its king. The great abbeys 
of the fen country, Medeshamstead, Croyland, 
Ely, were burned, and their inmates slain 
among the ruins. Mercia, to avoid invasions, 
acknowledged the Danes as its overlords, and 
paid them tribute. Within five years the work 
of Ecgberht had been undone. The whole 
country north of the Thames had been torn 
from the overlordship of Wessex, which now 
had to fight, not for supremacy, but for life. 
Its comparatively successful resistance may be 
set down to the energy of a single man, JEl- 
fred, the fourth son of ^thelwulf, who, by 
the death of his brother ^thelred, in 871, be- 
came king of Wessex. 

.Alfred the Great. — Alfred was a sturdy 
and hearty fighter, and a good king of a semi- 
barbaric people. As a lad, he had visited 
Rome ; and he retained throughout life a 
strong sense of his own and his people's bar- 
barism, and a genuine desire to civilize him- 
self and his subjects so far as his limited lights 
could carry him. During the first year of his 
reign (871) he succeeded in driving the Danes 
out of Wessex. But in 878 they renew^ed their 
attacks under Guthrum, and captured Chip- 
penham, Alfred's residence. The king him- 
self, dispirited by his many losses, retired for 
refuge to the marshes of Athelney. It was a 
position from which he could watch closely 
the movements of his foes, and with the first 
burst of spring he summoned his men for a 
sudden attack upon the enemy. At Ethandun 



ALFRED — ^THELRED— CNUT — EDWARD. 



the fight took place ; the Danes, being beaten, 
fled to their camp, where they were closely 
besieged for fourteen days, and forced to sur- 
render. Their leader, Guthrum, was baptized 
and bound by a solemn peace at Wedmore. 
By this peace the Danes were to leave Wes- 
sex, and that part of Mercia which was south- 
west of Watling Street ; their chiefs were to 
embrace Christianity and receive the whole 
land beyond Watling Street as vassals of the 
West-Saxon king. 

This triumph over Guthrum gave Alfred 
leisure to prepare for the reconquest of the 
rest of the country. For this purpose he 
steadily got ready a new fleet and army. But 
he did more to gather England round him by 
doing what he could to restore to it the law 
and good government which seemed to have 
perished in the troubles of the time. Not less 
earnestly did he strive to restore learning, 
which had suffered most of all ; and in the face 
of overwhelming difficulties he did so much, 
both by himself and through other scholars, 
that as English poetry is said to begin with 
Caedmon, so English prose looks back for its 
beginning to Alfred. 

The amount of work with which he is cred- 
ited is truly astonishing. He translated into 
English, with his own hand, " The History of 
the World," by Orosius ; Beda's " Ecclesiasti- 
cal History ," Boetius' " DeConsolatione," and 
Gregory's " Regula Pastoralis." At his court, 
too, if not under his own direction. The English 
Chronicle was first begun. 

Renewed Struggles. — Death removed 
Alfred (901) before he could carry out his 
plans of winning back England from the 
Danes, but his departure left the West Saxons 
as ready as ever to contend against the enemy. 
The history of the tenth century, and the first 
half of the eleventh, consists entirely of the 
continued contest between the West Saxons 
and the Scandinavians. It falls naturally into 
three periods : 

The first is that of the English reaction, 
when the West-Saxon kings, Eadward and 
iEthelstan, gradually reconquered the Danish 
North by inches at a time. Each district re- 
covered from the Danes was placed under an 
Ealdorman, intended to be a lieutenant of the 
national sovereign. 

The second period is that of Dunstan, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, who was probably the 
first Englishman who deserves the name of 
statesman. He was, during thirty years (958- 
988), the real ruler of England. Essentially 
an organizer and administrator, he was able 
to weld the unwieldy empire into a rough 
unity, which lasted as long as its author lived, 
and no longer. 



The third period is that of the decadence, 
beginning with the death of Dunstan, in 988. 
Finally, under ^thelred (fioi6t, the ill-welded 
empire fell asunder. 

-^thelred. — This king, when pressed by a 
fresh Danish invasion (994 a.d.), sought for 
safety by an alliance w4th the Normans of 
Neustria. He married Emma, daughter of the 
Norman Duke, Richard the Fearless (943-996). 
Thus supported, he proceeded to unjustifiable 
outrages against his domestic as well as his 
foreign foes. The Danes who remained in 
Britain he caused to be murdered all on one 
day (1002). The consequences of this deed 
necessarily recoiled upon himself. When the 
Danish King, Sven, landed (1013), he experi- 
enced no effectual resistance whatever, ^thel- 
red had to fly before him, and seek refuge with 
his brother-in-law, Richard the Good, Duke of 
Normandy (1014). 

Cnut the Great. — But Sven died in the 
first enjoyment of his victory. His son Cnut 
had no sooner appeared off the English coast, 
near Southampton, than the lay and spiritual 
chiefs of England decided to abandon the 
house of Cerdic forever, and to recognize 
Cnut as their king. With the sole support of 
London, and part of Wessex, Eadmund Iron- 
side, the son and successor of ^thelred, who 
passed away at the opening of the new contest 
(1016), struggled for a few months against the 
Danish forces. But a decisive victory at As- 
sandun (1016), and the death of his rival, left 
Cnut master of the realm. Cnut did not owe 
the crown to conquest, though his greater 
power contributed to the result, but to elec- 
tion, which now appeared as the superior 
right. Hitherto the Witan had always exer- 
cised it within the limits of the royal family ; 
this time they disregarded that family alto- 
gether. 

Edward the Confessor. — After Cnut's 
death (1035) we can observe a wavering be- 
tween the principles of election and birthright. 
The magnates again elected, but limited their 
choice to the king's house. After the extinc- 
tion of the Danish-Norman family, they came 
back to the English-Norman one ; they called 
the son of ^thelred and Emma, Edward the 
Confessor, to the throne of his father, though, 
it is true, without leaving him much power. 
This lay rather in the hands of the earls, who 
were anxious to revive the old kingdoms, and 
did what they could to undo the work of Alfred 
and Dunstan. 

Harold. — When Edward died without issue, 
the house of Godwin, which had previously 
secured three of the six earldoms into which 
England was divided, brought about the elec- 
tion of the mightiest of the earls — Harold, son 



65 



878—975 A. D. 



Plate XXIX. 





THE NORMANS. 



of Godwin, Earl of Wessex. The very day on 
which Edward the Confessor died (January 5, 
1066), Harold was elected and crowned with- 
out delay. This woke rivalry and dissension 
among the other nobles, and so laid England 
open to the ambition of Danes and Normans. 

THE NORMANS. 

Character of the Incursions. — The con- 
quest of England by the Danes was not an 
isolated event, but part of a great movement 
among the Northern nations. 

Leaving their homes in the ninth century, 
they had by the end of the twelfth penetrated 
into nearly every country of Europe. So 
close were their political and family relations 
with all the countries of the West, from Ice- 
land to Constantinople, from Russia to Spain, 
during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth cen- 
turies, that a history of the Northern emi- 
grants is little short of a history of Europe 
during those ages. The three countries — 
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden — all shared in 
the general movement, and the expeditions 
were indiscriminately joined by Dane and 
Swede and Northman. 

The English called them collectively Danes ; 
the Irish, Eastmen ; the people of Gaul, Nor- 
mans. 

Originally their journeys had been little 
more than marauding expeditions for the sake 
of plunder. They had no idea of forming any 
definite settlement, and ravaged the territories 
of friend and foe alike. But after 855 the 
idea of permanent settlement becomes appar- 
ent. We saw how in England about that time 
the Danish invasions, w^iich had been going 
on since 787, assumed a new form. They set- 
tled permanently in the northeastern part of 
England and finally made it a Danish realm. 
The cause of this may be found in a great 
political revolution in the three Northern 
realms, consisting in the confiscation of the 
common tribe land by the central power, and 
the introduction of a grinding system of taxa- 
tion. Irritated at the loss of their lands and 
freedom, they determined to emigrate, and a 
general exodus of the Northern nation com- 
menced, an exodus which may be compared 
to the present European exodus to America. 

Norman Settlements. — Besides England 
there were three other Scandinavian settle- 
ments on the islands west of the European 
continent, i. The Orkneys and Shetlands, 
lying to the northeast of Scotland. 11. The 
isles to the west as far south as Ireland, iii. 
Iceland and the Faroe Isles. By the close of 
the eighth century they have also made set- 
tlements in the west of Scotland. A century 
later we meet a sort of naval empire consist- 



ing of the Hebrides, partsof the western coasts 
of Scotland, especially the modern Argyll- 
shire, Man, Anglesea, and the eastern shores of 
Ireland. This empire, which lasted through 
the whole of the tenth century (until 1014), 
was ruled by the Hy-Ivar (grandsons of Ivar), 
who resided either in Dublin or on the Isle of 
Man. 

Other Northmen settled among the Slav- 
onians, on the great plains of Eastern Eu- 
rope, and became the founders of Russia {862 

A.D.). 

Normans in Gaul. — Gaul was as much 
exposed to the Scandinavian attacks as Brit- 
tain. At first the Northmen confined their 
ravages to the valleys of the streams, and took 
care to remain always within reach of the 
boats. Afterward, when they saw how little 
resistance was made, they boldly marched into 
the interior of the country. They penetrated 
to the centre of France as far as Limoges, 
which they plundered. They besieged Paris 
three times in twenty years. The fourth time, 
however (888), they were repulsed after a 
siege of several months. 

These incursions in Gaul naturally fall into 
three groups, guided by the great rivers and 
intervening shores. i. The district around 
the Scheldt and Rhine. 11. The districts of 
Loire and Garonne, reaching as far West as 
Spain, and inland as far as Bourges. iii. The 
districts of the Seine, Somme, and Oise. 

The invasions of Gaul by the Northmen 
differ from those of England by the Danes in 
one material point. Numerous as they were, 
they were isolated and scattered ; those of the 
Danes in England continuous. Consequently 
the latter permanently occupied one- half of 
England, and, though becoming Englishmen, 
still retained a certain local existence, and re- 
mained more or less distinct until the Norman 
conquest. But the settlers in Gaul, lying in 
small isolated groups, and but little recruited 
by new-comers — soon became entirely merged 
in the surrounding nationality, and lost their 
individuality, with the exception of one set- 
tlement alone, that of Hrolf (Rollo) at Rouen. 

Normandy. — Charles the Simple, King of 
Francia Occidentalis, being powerless to drive 
Rollo away, granted him by treaty the terri- 
tories which were already his own. By this 
treaty of C/air on Epte (see Plate XXXII.) Rollo 
secured the country from the river Epte to 
the sea, and the overlordship of Brittany, with 
the hand of Gisela, the daughter of Charles 
the Simple, and accepting Christianity as the 
price of the treaty, was led to the font by 
Robert, Count of Paris, who consented to be 
his god-father. During his reign (912-927) 
he laid the foundations of a lasting state, and 



66 



THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND. 



while all other settlements of his race in 
France and Germany rapidly disappeared, this 
alone has lasted on and deeply affected future 
ages. 

Under Rollo's successors, William Long- 
sword (d. 943), Richard the Fearless (d. 996), 
and Richard the Good (d. 1027), Normandy 
grew more populous, both through the natural 
increase of the population at home and the 
arrival of fresh bands of Scandinavians from 
the old home. 

Finally, after more than a century had 
passed, the old Norse spirit of adventure re- 
vived. Many valiant deeds sliowed that Nor- 
mandy was seething with vigorous life. Some 
sailed to Spain, trying in vain to wrest from 
the Moors lands for themselves. Others suc- 
ceeded in gaining a foothold in tlie South of 
Italy and on Sicily, where they finally suc- 
ceeded in forming a Norman state, which 
lasted nearly a century (till 1194). 

The most important of their enterprises, 
however, was the conquest of England. 

William's Claim. — There had often been 
rumors that the childless Edward the Con- 
fessor had destined Duke William of Nor- 
mandy (whose grandfather, Richard, was 
brother to Edward's motlier, Emma), to be his 
successor. Men asserted that Harold had pre- 
viously recognized this right, and that in re- 
turn, William's daughter and a part of the 
land, as an independent possession, had been 
promised him. However we may decide as 
to the details told us about his relations to 
Edward and Harold, it seems undeniable that 
William had received provisional promises 
from both. William submitted his claims to 
the English throne to the Roman See. Pope 
Alexander H. sent the Duke the banner of 
the Church. The Normans were still divided 
in their views as to the enterprise, but when 
this news arrived all opposition ceased. 

The Norman Invasion. — The invasion of 
England by Tostig (Harold's brother) and 
Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, which was 
undertaken in concert with William, did some- 
thing to weaken the English power of defence. 
At Stamford Bridge, where after half a cen- 
tury the place of battle was still heaped with 
the bones of warriors, many of the bravest 
English fell in the long day's struggle. On 
the third day after Harold's victory over the 
Northmen, William landed at Pevensey (Sep- 
tember 28). His merciless ravages of the 
coast succeeded, as they were intended, in 
drawing Harold to an engagement. But, if 
forced to give battle, he resolved to give it on 
ground he had himself chosen, and, advancing 
near enough to the coast to check William's 
ravages, he entrenched himself on the hill of 



G7 



Senlac — a low spur of the Sussex Downs, near 
Hastings — in a position which covered Lon- 
don, and forced the Norman army to concen- 
trate. With a host subsisting by pillage, to 
concentrate is to starve, and no alternative 
was left to William but a decisive victory or 
ruin. And so William and Harold, the French 
knights, and the national war-array of the 
English, met near '"''the hoar apple tree,'' as the 
Saxon Chronicle expresses it (October 14). 
Harold fell at the very beginning of the fight. 
The Normans knew how to separate their en- 
emies by a pretended flight, and then, by a 
sudden return, to surround and destroy them 
in isolated bodies. It was the iron-clad, yet 
rapidly moving cavalry, which decided the 
battle. 

The Conquest of England. — The beaten 
army retreated on London, and there raised to 
the throne Edgar, grandson of Eadmund Iron- 
side. But this choice gave little strength to 
the national cause. For, when William neared 
London, Eadgar himself was at the head ot 
the deputation which came to offer the crown 
to the Norman Duke, and at Christmas, 1066, 
he was crowned at Westminster by Archbishop 
Ealdred. As yet, indeed, the greater part of 
England remained quietly aloof from him. 
But to the east of a line which stretched from 
the Wash to Poole Harbor in Dorset, his rule 
was unquestioned, and after the campaign of 
1068, England, as far as the Tees, seemed to 
lie quietly at his feet. But now England sud- 
denly arose as one man. William, although 
taken by surprise, was equal to the occasion. 
A series of campaigns began which left him, 
five years after the battle of Hastings, undis- 
puted master of England. 

FOUNDATION OF THE HOLY ROMAN 
EMPIRE. 

The Last Carlovingians in Germany. — 

After the deposition of Charles the Fat (887) 
the ill-assorted elements were forever separated 
and four kingdoms arose, Eastern and Western 
Francia, Italy, and Burgundy. Lotharingia 
remained a border land between the two first- 
named, attached sometimes to Western some- 
times to Eastern Francia. The latter, the 
forerunner of Germany, fell after the death of 
the last of the Carlovingians into a kind of 
loose federation of four nations, Franconia, 
Saxony, Suabia, and Bavaria, with their sepa. 
rate laws and their own dukes. From among 
these dukes was chosen the presiding officer 
of the confederacy with the title of king. 
The first choice fell on Conrad of Franconia, 
who, instead of being satisfied with the posi- 
tion of presiding officer, constantly endeav- 
ored to become a sovereign. The result was 



OTTO THE GREAT — THE HOLY ROMAIS" EMPIRE. 



constant troubles with his equals, the other 
dukes. 

On Conrad's death, in 918, the Saxons and 
Franks elected Henry, Duke of Saxony, as their 
leader in war. Clearly perceiving that the 
possibility of a monarchy depended solely on 
the relations of the Franks and Saxons, he 
treated the Duke of Franconia like an ally. 
The dukes of Bavaria and Suabia were grad- 
ually induced to acknowledge his leadership. 
Finally, even Lorraine hailed him as the 
representative of the unity of the German 
tribes and their commander in war. He was 
the founder of many cities in Northern Ger- 
many, and gave great encouragement to com- 
merce and manufactures. He obtained a deci- 
sive victory over his most dangerous enemies 
(the Magyars at Merseburg, in 933), re-estab- 
lished the marches which had been broken at 
all points, and suffered nothing that bore the 
German name to be wrested from him. He be- 
queathed an undisputed sceptre to his house. 

Otto the Great. — Otto I. (936-973) carried 
forward with equal energy the work which 
his father had begun. He first completely re- 
alized the idea of a Germanic empire, which his 
father had only conceived and prepared. In 
order to maintain the unity of the kingdom, 
he aimed to make the dukes who during his 
father's reign had been sovereigns, officers of 
the crown. When the dukes of Bavaria, Fran- 
conia, and Lorraine rose in arms against him 
he not only subdued them, but gave the con- 
quered duchies to members of his own family. 
In order to confirm his authority he increased 
the powers of the Counts Palatine, royal 
officers who superintended the domains of the 
king in the several duchies and dispensed 
justice in his name. 

The Foundation of the Holy Roman 
Empire. — Italy was, during the first half of 
the tenth century, a prey to anarchy. For a 
time (926-945) Hugh of Provence w^as called 
king ; then followed his son Lothar (till 950). 
His successor, Berengar II. of Ivrea, tried to 
force Adelheid, the beautiful young widow of 
Lothar, into a marriage with his son Adalbert. 
She escaped with great difficulty from the 
prison where she was confined, took refuge in 
the castle of Canossa, and appealed to King 
Otto for help. 

He listened, descended into Lombardy by 
the Brenner pass, espoused the injured queen, 
and forced Berengar to hold his kingdom 
as a vassal of the East Prankish crown (952). 
But Berengar was turburlent and faithless ; 
new complaints reached ere long his liege 
lord, and envoys from Pope John XII. of- 
fered Otto the imperial crown if he would re- 
enter and pacify Italy. Everything smiled on 



Otto's enterprise, and the connection which 
was destined to bring such strife and woe to 
Germany and to Italy was welcomed by the 
wisest of both countries as the beginning of a 
belter era. Descending from the Alps with 
an overpowering force, he was crowned King 
of Italy at Pavia ; and, having first taken an 
oath to protect the Holy See and respect the 
liberties of the city, advanced to Rome. 
There, with Adelheid, his queen, he was 
crowned by the Pope (February 2, 962). 

The rule was now fully established that the 
German king who was crowned at Aix-la- 
Chapelle had a right to be crowned King of 
Italy at Milan, and Emperor at Rome. 

A geographical Western Empire was thus 
again founded, consisting of the two kingdoms 
of Germany and Italy, to which at the expira- 
tion of the Burgundian line, in 1032, Burgundy 
was added. These three kingdoms with the 
Empire of Rome (the doDiiniuin imindi and the 
titular lordship over the city of Rome), now 
formed the Western Empire, generally called 
the German Empire, or, more accurately, the 
Holy Roman Empire. 

In a time of disintegration, confusion, and 
strife, all the longings of every wiser and 
better soul for unity, for peace, and law, for 
some bond to bring Christian men and Chris- 
tian states together against the common en- 
emy of the faith, were but so many cries for 
tlie restoration of the Roman Empire. Triese 
were feelings that thirty years before (933) 
had broken forth on the field of Merseburg, in 
the shout of " Henry the Emperor," these the 
hopes of the Teutonic host, when, after the 
great victory on the Lechfeldt, they had 
greeted Otto, conqueror of the Magyars, as 
Iinperator^ Augustus^ Pater Patrice (955). 

Otto and the Papacy. — The very pope 
who had crowned Otto soon reversed his steps, 
allied himself with Berengar, and tried to stir 
up the Greeks, and even the Magyars, against 
the emperor. But the latter remembered the 
terrible day of the Lechfeldt. Otto came 
down from Lombardy and captured Rome. 
He caused Pope Jolin XII. to be deposed 
and Leo VIII. to be appointed in his place 
(963). But while Otto was again absent Leo 
was driven out by the Romans and John re- 
turned, but only to die. The Romans then 
elected Benedict pope. 

Otto captured Rome, once more deposed 
him, and restored Leo. On a third journey to 
Italy, in 966, Otto crushed the factions which 
had so long degraded Rome and the Church. 
On this occasion he negotiated a marriage be- 
tween Theophania, a Greek princess, and his 
eldest son, Otto. Thus he acquired the south- 
ern extremity of Italy. 



C8 



] 



962 A. D. 



PLATE XXX. 




CARLO VINGIANS AND CAPETIANG. 



The Other Emperors of the Saxon Line. 

— This Otto II. (973-983) lacked his father's 
energy and decision. In 980 lie went to 
Southern Italy to conquer it from the Sara- 
cens, but in an unfortunate sea-fight he nar- 
rowly escaped falling into their hands. Be- 
fore he could prepare for a new campaign he 
died. While Otto III. (983-1002) was a 
minor, his mother, Theophania, was regent 
for a time in Germany. He grew up a highly 
gifted man, reminding the people of his illus- 
trious grandfather, Otto I. Sixteen years old, 
he was crowned emperor in Rome (996), 
which he dreamed to make once more the 
centre of the world. But he died before the 
completion of his twenty-second year. Upon 
his unexpected decease without issue, his sec- 
ond cousin, Henry, Duke of Bavaria, was 
raised to the throne as next of kin. He was 
an earnest religious man, great as warrior, but 
still greater as law-giver. He had continually 
to fight, and was in general successful. Lom- 
bardy and Bohemia were forced by his sword 
to acknowledge his authority. The result of 
his successful warfare was that the seven Ger- 
man duchies (Bavaria, Carinthia, Alemannia, 
Franconia, Saxony, Upper Lorraine, and 
Lower Lorraine) learned to look upon each 
other as members of one nation. 

One of his greatest acts was the foundation 
of the bishopric of Bamberg, which German- 
ized the countries on the Upper Maine, which 
hitherto had been Sclavonic. From the time 
of his ancestor, Henry I., until forty years af- 
ter the death of Henry II., the German kings 
remained the chief sovereigns of the Christian 
world. The German princes had not yet ren- 
dered their offices and feudal possessions he- 
reditary, but continued to be great and pow- 
erful vassals, while the royal house enjoyed 
the preponderating power. The Ottos and 
their successors protected Germany from the 
anarchy which laid waste the other parts of 
Europe. 

As emperors of tlie Holy Roman Empire 
they represented the unity of Western Chris- 
tendom. 

The Eastern Empire During this Pe- 
riod. — While the Western Empire had thus 
become Germanic, the Eastern Empire had 
become Asiatic. It is only in Asia that any 
solid part of territory is kept. The interior of 
the Balkan peninsula belonged only in name 
to the emperor at Constantinople, Servians 
and Bulgarians having founded independent 
states ; only islands and fringes of coast be- 
longed to the emperor. But they were al- 
most continuous fringes of coast, fringes 
which contained some of the greatest cities 
of Christendom, and which gave their masters 



an undisputed supremacy by sea. If the 
eastern basin of the Mediterranean was not 
a Byzantine lake, it was only the presence of 
the Saracen, and the occasional visit of the 
Norman, which hindered it from being so. 

Origin of the Capets and Plantagenets. 
— In Anjou, close to the march of Bretagne, 
there arose, in the ninth century, two families, 
the progenitors of the Capets and Plantage- 
nets of the future kings of France and of Eng- 
land — both springing from obscure chiefs who 
distinguished themselves by their defence of 
their country. The Plantagenets refer t.:eir 
origin to Torthulf, a simple peasant, who was 
named by Charles the Bald ranger of the for- 
est of Nid-de-Merle (Tlirush's nest). His son, 
who was named after him, was created sene- 
schal of Anjou. 

The Capets, likewise, first settled in Anjou, 
and appear to have been Saxon chiefs in the 
service of Charles the Bald, who intrusted to 
their first known ancestor, Robert the Strong, 
the defence of the country between the Seine 
and the Loire. Robert the Strong is slain by 
Hastings, the leader of the Northmen, in the 
battle of Brisserte ; while his more successful 
son, Eudes, repulses them when they lay siege 
to Paris (885), and gains a great victory over 
them at Montfaugon. 

Carlovingians and Capetians. — On the 
deposition of Charles the Fat he is chosen 
king of France. On his death, in 893, the Car- 
lovingian, Charles the Simple, receives the royal 
title. During this stormy reign the royal title 
was assumed first by Robert, brother of King 
Eudes, and then by Raoul of Burgundy, son- 
in-law of Robert. After Charles the Simple 
was dethroned and imprisoned at Laon, in 929, 
Raoul was generally recognized. But in 936 
Louis d'Outremer (from beyond the sea), son 
of Charles, returned from his exile in Eng- 
land, and was allowed to mount the throne. 
The real ruler, however, was King Robert's 
son Hugh, Count of Paris, surnamed the 
Great, from his immense possessions, and 
who was the most powerful man between 
Seine and Loire. 

Disdaining the title of king, he played 
against Louis the same part which had been 
played by Robert and Raoul against Charles. 
Louis died in 954, and was succeeded by his 
son. King Lothar. Two years later Hugh the 
Great died, and was succeeded as Duke of 
Francia by his son, Hugh Capet. Although 
the reign of Lothar was somewhat less dis- 
turbed than that of his father, on the whole, 
however, Lothar and Hugh Capet stand in 
nearly the same relation ^ ^, Louis and Hugh 
the Great. 

Lothar was succeeded, in 986, by his son, 



69 



1064—1070 A. D. 



Plate XXXI. 




WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 



Louis v., who expired only one year after his 
father's death, May, 987. 

The Capets on the Throne. — Lothar's 
brother, Charles of Lorraine, attempted to 
succeed his nephew on the throne. The na- 
tion had sworn in the election of kings to con- 
fine themselves to the house of Pepin. But 
Hugh Capet was elected and Charles of Lor- 
raine was made a prisoner. 

The house of Charlemagne without a revo- 
lution sunk unobserved into obscurity, as the 
family of Clovis had sunk before, not in con- 
sequence of tyrannical government, but through 
the weakness of its last representatives. Hugh 
Capet secretly prepared the way for a more 
important revolution for converting the elec- 
tive into an hereditary monarchy. In order 
to effect this he caused his son Robert to be 
crowned during his own life, and thus con- 
trived to make his own authority come in aid 
of the feeble pretensions which the young 
prince could offer to the throne. 

The succeeding king imitated his example, 
until in the time of Philip Augustus, the royal 
power seemed so securely established in the 
hands of the reigning dynasty that the precau- 
tion was henceforth superfluous. 

Importance of the Election of Hugh 
Capet. — The accession of the Capetian race 
far exceed in importance that of the Carlovin- 
gian. Strictly speaking, it constitutes the end 
of the reign of the Franks and the substitution 
of a national monarchy for a government 
founded on conquest. Henceforward French 
history is unmixed, and we follow and rec- 
ognize the same people, despite the changes 
that take place in manners and civilization. 
This national identity is the foundation on 
which the dynastic unity has for so many ages 
rested. The people seem to have had a sin- 
gular presentiment of this long succession of 
kings, on the accession of the third race. The 
report ran that, in 981, St. Valery, whose relics, 
Hugh Capet, then Count of Paris, had just 
had translated, appeared to him in a dream, 
and said : For what thou hast done^ thou and thy 
descendants shall be kings to the seventh ge?ieration 
— that is^ forever. 

The accession of the new dynasty was hardly 
noticed in the distant provinces. For a long 
time the monarch will have little more influ- 
ence than a duke or a mere count. The 
Capets are powerful lords, capable of resisting 
by themselves the great lords. They hold 
many countships in their own hands. With 
the third race, as with the second, royalty was 
renewed by a family of large proprietors 
friendly to the Church. Property and the 
Church form the deep foundations on which 
monarchy will once more rise and flourish. 



ENGLAND AND NORMANDY UNDER THE 
NORMAN DYNASTY. 

William the Conqueror. — The temper and 
the circumstances of the Conqueror gave 
their impress to his policy. His distrust of 
the English was the natural result of the 
course which he had taken toward them. He 
did enough to make confidence in him impos- 
sible, and then affected to complain of the 
want of confidence. It was not in his nature 
to choose a mild course for its own sake. His 
avarice and his ambition prompted him to 
rule with a strong hand. To gratify these 
passions he could descend to almost any debt 
in craft or crime. 

When he promised at his coronation to rule 
the people of England as the best of their 
kings had ruled them, it was to secure the 
appearance, as far as possible, of an English 
suffrage in connection with that ceremony. 
When he pledged himself in the most public 
and solemn manner two years later to uphold 
the laws of Edward the Confessor, it was with 
the hope of deterring the Southern English 
from taking part with the insurgents of the 
North. In the great meeting at Salisbury, 
the pledge to govern according to the good 
laws of Edward and of his predecessors was 
renewed. 

Among the acts of the Conqueror, of which 
we find traces to this very day, is the creation 
of the New Forest, by turning the cultivated 
ground of a great part of Hampshire into 
a forest, and so it remains to the present 
day. 

The Domesday Book. — The record of 
Dojnesday Book made its report concerning the 
persons and properties of the kingdom in 1085. 
The design of the Conqueror in securing an 
entry of all persons and properties in this 
book was to possess himself of the information 
necessary for making his enactions and exer- 
cising his arbitrary will in a manner that should 
be at once scientific and certain. The original 
written book still exists in the chapter-house 
at Westminster Abbey. It is the most com- 
plete and most curious account of a country 
in such far-off times that has ever been writ- 
ten. It gives the names of the owners and 
tenants of every estate in England, and shows 
us the different classes and occupations of the 
rest of the people. We find there were Nor- 
man barons and Saxon thanes. These were 
the nobility of the land, and were called free- 
men. Then there was a class called villeins 
{villagers), who were allowed to occupy the 
land at the will of the lord, on condition of 
performing certain services. But they could 
acquire no property in land or goods. Below 
these were the slaves. 



70 



987—1134 A. D. 



Plate XXXII. 




WILLIAM RUFUS — STEPHEN. 



William Rufus (1087-1100). — In 1087 the 
Conqueror was obliged to go over to France 
to defend his possessions in Normandy, and 
^t the siege of Mantes his liorse trod on some 
burning embers, and injured him so severely 
that he soon died from the effects of his ac- 
-cident. He was buried at Caen, in Normandy. 
His second son, William, hastened from Nor- 
mandy to England and seized the crown be- 
fore his elder brother Robert could take any 
steps to support his claim to the throne. 
Robert succeeded his father as Duke of Nor- 
mandy, and invaded England with a view of 
placing himself on the English throne. But 
William made fair promises to the English, 
who flocked to his help, and the invaders were 
not only defeated, but war was carried into 
France. 

Normandy was at length pawned to him for 
five years by his brother Robert for a sum of 
money, w4iich enabled the duke to join the 
first crusade. William Rufus was killed in 
that New" Forest which had been planted by 
his father. He was hunting there, and was 
accidentally slain by an arrow aimed at one of 
the "tall deer" his father so much loved. 

Henry Beauclerc (1100-1135). — According 
to the law of succession Robert should have 
succeeded to his brother William. But at the 
moment when the throne became vacant, Rob- 
ert was at a distance with the Crusaders, and 
his place was seized by his younger brother 
Henry. It became Henry, in these circum- 
stances, to be mindfulof everything that might 
tend to conciliate the nation, and especially 
the clergy. He removed some obnoxious 
officers, put an end to many irritating oppres- 
sions, and bound himself at his coronation by 
the oath of the Anglo-Saxon kings. 

Robert, on his return from the Holy Land, 
found himself again cheated of his right to the 
•crown of England. He, however, at once 
made preparations to cross the Channel, and 
arrived at Portsmouth in nor. Henry now" 
found out the wisdom of the conduct which he 
had followed in securing the good-will of the 
English ; for, while very many Norman nobles 
sided with Robert, the English rallied around 
Henry. For several days the two armies stood 
facing each other, but as a great battle would 
have been the ruin of Norman influence in 
the country, peace was made between them 
by the influence of Anselm, Archbishop of 
Canterbury. It was agreed that Robert should 
keep possession of Normandy and Henry re- 
main King of England. But Henry was very 
ambitious and very soon found a pretext for 
invading Normandy. At the battle of Tenche- 
bray Robert fell into his brother's hands, who 
-carried him off to England. Here he kept 



him in prison in Cardiff Castle for nearly thirty 
years ; and as a chronicler of the time says, 
" Nor was he liberated till the day of his 
death." This victory over Robert united again 
England and Normandy. Robert's son William 
could, however, neither forget his own rights 
nor his father's wrongs, and he found strong 
supporters in the King of France and the 
counts of Flanders and Anjou. They invaded 
Normandy and attacked Henry at Brenneville, 
near Rouen. But again the victory remained 
with Henry, and his nephew escaped with the 
greatest difficulty. Henry died in 1135. 

Stephen (1135-1155). — The only surviving 
child of Henry I. was Mathilda, married to 
Geoffrey Piantagenet. Stephen, Count of Blois, 
was the son of Adela, daughter of William the 
Conqueror. His uncle Henry, the late king, 
had brought him to England at an early age 
and had treated him with marked favor. Al- 
though he had sworn with the other barons to 
maintain the right of his cousin Mathilda, he 
hurried off from Henry's death-bed to secure 
the throne for himself and was crowned at 
London a few weeks after his uncle's death. 
David, King of Scotland, and uncle of Mathilda, 
was the first to take up arms in her cause. 
He invaded the Northern counties, but 
Stephen bought him off by the grant of the 
lordship of Huntingdon and the castle of 
Carlisle. 

Again Mathilda implored him to take up 
arms in her behalf, and the Norman barons 
who had fled to the lowlands from Stephen's 
strong rule, urged him to overthrow the 
usurper. He invaded England again in 1138, 
ravaging the country in the most cruel man- 
ner, retreating as soon as Stephen marched 
against him, who was unable to pursue the in- 
vaders through the desolated counties for want 
of provisions. When the Scots returned the 
people of the North determined to fight for 
themselves. Thurstan, the aged Archbishop 
of York, summoned the people of every parish 
by the sign of the cross to rally for the defence 
of their homes. Near Northallerton the two 
armies met. To inspirit the English the ban- 
ners of three Saxon saints were fastened to a 
mast and set up on a four-wheeled car. Above 
the flags was a crucifix, and just below it was 
a silver box containing the consecrated wafer. 
The English gathered round this standard and 
hurled back the advancing Scots, 12,000 of 
whom were killed. This battle is known as 
the Battle of the Standard. 

Stephen's whole reign was occupied by these 
contests for the throne with her and with 
David of Scotland. In order to gain adherents 
to his cause he was obliged to make many 
concessions to the Norman barons. They ex- 



71 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 



corted leave to tortify their castles, which 
they filled with their turbulent soldiers and 
greatly oppressed the people. England was 
at lengtli invaded by Mathilda's son Henry (in 
1 153). He met the army of Stephen at Wal- 
lingford, but no battle took place, for the ad- 
herents of both chiefs were thoroughly tired 
of the quarrel. Just at tliis time, Eustace, 
Stephen's only son, suddenly died, and Stephen, 
having now no one to fight for, agreed to a 
peace. It was settled that Stephen should 
wear the crown as long as he lived, and that 
Henry should receive the homage of the barons 
as heir-apparent. 

With the reign of Henry I. the Norman 
kings had reached their highest pitch of power. 
After him their kingdom passed away, for a 
short time, to the House of Blois, then to that 
of Anjou. With both these houses they had 
long been connected, with both an hereditary 
and deadly hostility had existed from the 
earliest times. But, though the Norman power 
thus slipped away from the direct descendants 
of Rollo, the Norman influence was far from 
being destroyed in England. They never were 
driven out. They coalesced with the English, 
and lost their individuality in the common 
nationality. But they long enjoyed the chief 
positions in the state, and the Norman admin- 
istrative and executive machinery still lies em- 
bedded in the British constitution side by side 
with the local institutions of the English and 
Saxons. 

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

Origin of Feudalism. — When the Franks 
conquered Gaul they divided the lands among 
themselves. This estate each man held as a 
freehold {allodium). The king took, of course, 
the larger share, but he granted from time to 
time portions of his land to his followers, as 
rewards for their fidelity, in return for acts of 
special service or to attach them more closely 
to himself. In return for this grant he ex- 
acted a pledge of fidelity. Lands so granted 
were termed benejicia, and though, perhaps, 
originally held for life, rapidly tended to be- 
come hereditary. 

In time this custom was extended by the 
spontaneous act of the free land-owners, who, 
for the sake of protection in those troubled 
times of the tenth century, surrendered their 
freeholds (allodia) to some great man to be 
held for them as beneficia. 

Thus this beneficiary system gradually be- 
came universal, and out of it feudalism arose. 
The real relation, that is, the tie formed 
through the medium of land tenure, existed 
between landlord and tenant, and a rent was 
in many cases paid. But the personal tie of 



vassalage was wanting. The tenant, while 
holding land of another and promising to be 
faithful to the lord as a return for protection, 
was in no sense ///V man; he paid him no hom- 
age. This, the personal tie, was given by the 
custom of commendation^ whereby the inferior 
put himself under the personal care of his 
Lord. With head uncovered, with belt ungirt, 
his sword removed, he placed his hands, kneel- 
ing, between those of his lord, promised to be- 
come his man, and took the oath of fealty. 

This vassalage had originally no relation to 
land. The tie between man and man was here 
a purely personal one. Finally, in the union 
of the beneficiary tie with that of commenda- 
tion the feudal obligation arose. 

Then, in every case where a beneficium was 
granted, or handed over by the owner to be 
received back again, the tie would be com- 
pleted by an act of homage, and the tenant 
would now be bound to his lord by tenure and 
fealty. 

Subinfeudation and Its Consequences. — 
Thus society grouped itself round many cen- 
tres. The great men became tenants to the 
crown, lesser men became tenants to the 
greater. The demand made on every tenant 
by his lord, whether in the person of the king 
or the baron, was a certain amount of military 
assistance, or else a rent to be paid in the 
shape of produce or personal service. The 
first form of tenure was designated military 
tenure. The second was known by the name 
of socage. Before. the close of the tenth cen- 
tury the whole of Western Christendom was 
subject to the feudal laws. 

There is no land without its lord. But this 
saying is convertible into no lord without his 
land. Man has attached himself to the earth, 
and has struck root in the rock from which his 
tower rises. The land is man, and in it dwells 
true personality. As person it is indivisible ; 
it must remain one and devolve on the eldest. 
As person, too, immortal, indifferent, and piti- 
less, it knows not nature. The eldest son is to 
be sole possessor, or rather, it is he who is pos- 
sessed ; the haughty baron is governed by the 
customs of his land. His land is his master, 
and imposes his duties upon him. According 
to the forcible expression of the times, he must 
serve his fief . 

Feudal Incidents — The feudal tenures 
brought with them feudal burdens which were 
occasional, in addition to those which were 
regular. On succeeding to an inheritance a 
considerable fine was paid to the lord, under 
the name of the relief. On such occasions the 
contributions of those who held by military 
tenure consisted of horses and war-like accou- 
trements. The socage tenant forfeited a year's 



72 



WESTERN EUROPE 1000 A.D. 



rent ; the villein his best beast. Similar ex- 
actions were made under the name of aids 
when the king knighted his eldest son or gave 
his daughter in marriage. It was provided 
also that the property of state offenders should 
escheat to the crown, and that the same should 
follow on the failure of heirs. 

Feudalism as a System of Government. 
— It had long been the custom of the kings to 
couple their grants of land with rights of in- 
dependent judicature over the dwellers on that 
land, and under the successors of Charlemagne 
the official magistracy became hereditary. 
They acquired large estates, with the rights of 
jurisdiction ; the smaller land-owners gathered 
round them for protection, and became their 
vassals. Thus, as the central power lost its 
hold, these officials gradually established their 
independence, until, from the ministerial 
officers of the Empire, the dukes and counts 
became the rulers over separate principalities, 
with semi-royal rights of jurisdiction, coinage, 
and legislation, enjoying the right of waging 
private war, and bound to the central author- 
ity by the feudal tie alone. 

By the union of these two tendencies, then 
— the centripetal from below, the centrifugal 
from above — the feudal system was completed. 

Each held of another ; all were bound to 
one another by obligation of service, fealty, 
and defence ; and all eventually held of the 
emperor, the head of the feudal fabric, 



Government and justice were organized on 
the same basis. Each separate lord had his 
feudal court, with jurisdiction over his im- 
mediate vassals and the tenants of his demesne. 
This jurisdiction varied according to the terms 
of grant in each particular case. 

Difference between the Roman W^orld 
and the Feudal W^orld. — Nothing can be 
more strikingly unlike in external aspect than 
the states of society which are discerned on 
either side of the stormy interval filled with 
the movement and the subsidence of the bar- 
barian invasions. Just before it is reached Wfe, 
see a large part of mankind arranged, so to 
speak, on one vast level surface dominated in 
every part by the over-shadowing authority of 
the Roman emperor. On this they lie as so 
many equal units, connected together by no 
institutions, which are not assumed to be the 
creation of positive Roman law ; and between 
them and their sovereign there is nothing but 
a host of functionaries, who are his ser- 
vants. 

When feudal Europe has been constituted, 
all this is changed. Everybody has become 
the subordinate of somebody else higher than 
himself, and yet exalted above him by no great 
distance. Society has taken the form of a 
pyramid. The great multitude of cultivators 
is at its base, and then it mounts up through 
ever-narrowing sections till it approaches an 
apex in the emperor or the pope. 



THE AGE OF THE CRUSADES. 



THE CAUSES WHICH LED TO THE 
CRUSADES. 

Condition of Western Europe looo A.D. 

— When the first thousand years of our era 
were drawing to a close the people in every 
country in Europe looked with certainty for 
the destruction of the world. This fearful 
hope of the arrival of the judgment-day grew 
with the calamities that ushered in the year 
looo, or thatfollowed hard upon. It seemed as 
if the order of the seasons had been inverted, and 
the elements had been subjected to new laws. 
A dreadful pestilence made Aquitaine a desert. 
From the East to Greece, Italy, France, and 
England, famine prevailed. Many were driven 
by hunger to feed on their fellow creatures. 
The strong waylaid the weak, tore them to 
pieces, and ate them. In this hopeless condi- 
tion of the world man's thoughts turned to- 
ward Heaven. For all other interests had be- 



come worthless ; no possession and no exist- 
ence was safe from rude force ; nowhere was 
to be found, after the splendid line of the 
Ottos had passed away, a character or a great 
idea capable of exciting the imagination of a 
noble heart. In consequence, a state of feel- 
ing arose full of the bitterest hatred against 
this earthly world. Burning with desire for 
the joys of heaven, men fled from their fam- 
ilies and occupations. Monasteries were more 
filled than ever ; new orders were instituted, 
the rules and the practices rose to the highest 
degree of asceticism and penance. More par- 
ticularly in France, Spain, and Italy this feel- 
ing was spread through all classes. Pilgrims 
and palmers became more numerous than ever 
before. 

Many thousands went every year to the 
famous abbeys of Clugny, or Monte Cassino, 
to the graves of the Apostles, to Rome, or 
to St. lago de Compostella ; and, above all. 



73 



AGGRESSIVE CHRISTIANITY. 



crossed the sea to Palestine, to the land whicli ! 
Christ trod, and to tlie rock which is said to 
have been his grave. High and low took part 
with equal zeal, all filled with the same belief 
that they stood on the threshold of heaven, 
and all equally horror-struck that unbelieving 
Mohammedans were desecrating this holy 
place. 

Christianity becomes Aggressive. — 
When religious enthusiasm had impregnated 
mankind to such a degree, anger against the 
unbeliever arose of its own accord, and war 
against the false religion appeared to be the 
most holy and praiseworthy action, Burgun- 
dians, Provencals, and Normans helped the 
King of Castile to besiege the Calipli of Cor- 
dova, and to take Toledo. The Normans from 
Naples settled themselves in Sicily ; and the 
fleets of Pisa and Genoa, decked with papal 
banners, stormed the harbor of Palermo. 
Thus the Christian faith became, in time, the 
badge of a great system of national defensive 
and offensive alliance, which was animated by 
a sacred fire, and eager for deadly warfare 
against all unbelievers. If, from the seventh 
to the ninth centuries, Islam had harassed the 
Christian nations by its vigorous aggressions, 
now, in the eleventh, came the day of reckon- 
ing, in a no less violent attack, on the part of 
Christendom, upon the whole Mohammedan 
world. 

The Leader of Aggressive Christianity. 
— Every great war must have a commander- 
in-chief to direct and a ruler to command it. 
In the days of Charlemagne and Otto the 
Great, Christendom possessed such a leader 
in the person of the emperor. Now that was 
at an end, for the imperial power was barely 
tolerated by the German and Italian nobility, 
and not recognized at all by the rest of Eu- 
rope. To fill up this void, and give to the 
Latin world a new head, the same ecclesiasti- 
cal spirit which had roused the war against 
Islam w'as now at work. Now that the em- 
peror had become incapable of representing 
the Christian world, the pope v/as quite ready 
to "grasp the temporal, as well as the spiritual, 
power, and in the character of chief military 
commander of Europe to begin the crusade 
against Mohammedan Asia. Gregory VII. 
(Hildebrand) was the first pope who assumed 
this position in the face of Europe in its full 
force and extent. Scarcely had he grasped 
the reins of ecclesiastical government (1073) 
when he developed a universal genius for 
ruling. He had the knowledge, the ability, 
and the will to do everything. He became a 
reformer of the Church, a statesman and a 
conqueror, a demagogue and a diplomatist, all 
with equal vigor and masterly skill. In the 



height of his enthusiasm he went further thatv 
any man had dared to dream of doing before 
him. "All princes," he wrote, "shall kiss the 
pope's foot ; he alone shall wear the imperial 
insignia ; he alone is answerable toward God 
for the sins of kings." He accordingly de- 
manded, on. no other title than this religious 
one, the oath of allegiance from the King of 
England, declared Spain to be the property of 
St. Peter, and summoned the King of Poland 
to appear before his tribunal. For these 
schemes, which embraced the whole of Eu- 
rope, he strengthened himself by retirement 
and daily, sincere, and anxious prayer. Forti- 
fied anew by devotion, he again rushed into 
the thick of the fight, in order to enforce, by 
worldly weapons, that obedience which he had 
already demanded from kings as his due. He 
gained adherents in all countries, and bound 
them by solemn oaths and military organiza- 
tion to follow his guidance. Not satisfied 
with establishing a universal supremacy over 
crowned heads, he took their subjects into 
his own allegiance. He was on the high-road 
to the destruction of all the existing govern- 
ments of the world, in order that he might em- 
body them in his great spiritual dominion. 
Gregory announced the temporal supremacy 
of the popes as a new spiritual and war-like 
impersonation of Christianity. 

Gregory's Plan. — The pope counted not 
only upon the obedience of the Latin nations, 
but also on bringing back the Greek schism 
to its allegiance ; and then upon leading both 
combined to a decisive attack upon Islam. A 
motive was furnished by a war-like movement 
w^hich broke out in the bosom of Islam itself. 
At two points its dominions had been invaded 
by unruly hordes of half-savage tribes. 
Among the Kabyles in the African desert 
arose the empire of the Morabites, who, after 
subjugating the whole district between the 
Syrtes, the Sahara, and the ocean, burst upon 
the Christians of Spain in a furious invasion. 
Simultaneously the wild tribes of the Seljukes 
poured in upon Asia, laid waste the posses- 
sions of the Caliph of Bagdad, and advanced 
on Asia Minor and the dominions of the 
Greek emperor, whom they, in a few cam- 
paigns, drove across the Dardanelles in dis- 
graceful flight. It seemed as if the times of 
Musa had returned, and Christendom was 
again to be threatened both from the East and 
from the West. But Gregory VII. felt himself 
more secure than Charles Martel, and resolved 
to anticipate the attack. In France he pleaded 
with great effect to obtain assistance for the 
Spaniards ; in Rome he got together, in 1074, 
an army of 50,000 men, faithful followers of St. 
! Peter, whom he intended to lead in person to 



THE FIRST CRUSADE. 



the relief of Constantinople and the destruc- 
tion of the Turks. He called upon the em- 
peror, Henry IV., to help him in this under- 
taking, and at the same time expressed his 
intention of first bringing back the Greeks 
and Armenians to the unity of the Church of 
Rome ; after which he should lead the tri- 
umphant army to the Holy Sepulchre at Jeru- 
salem. It was the first, and for many subse- 
quent centuries the last, time that so vast and 
so methodical a plan of attack upon Asia had 
been conceived in Christian Europe. 

Pope and Emperor. — Gregory VII. was 
not, however, destined to reap these laurels, 
for within a few months the dispute with 
Henry IV. broke out. In 1074 the pope as- 
sembled a council, by which it was forbidden 
to the prelates to receive investiture of a lay- 
man, for reform of Church or clergy was im- 
possible so long as all the high dignitaries of 
the Church were dependent on a monarch. 
On the other side, half of the land and wealth 
of Germany was in the hands of bishops and 
abbots, who would now be freed from the mon- 
arch's control. 

Henry, disregarding tlie papai authority, 
was summoned to Rome ; but he held a diet 
at Worms, and pronounced the deposition of 
the pope. To this Gregory replied by pro- 
curing his deposition and the election of an- 
other, Rudolf of Suabia. Henry now promised 
submission, and in the winter of 1077 went to 
Italy. The pope was at the Castle of Canossa, 
and there, after keeping the penitent Henry 
three days waiting at the gate, he gave him ab- 
solution. But the terms imposed upon him 
were not kept. Henry set up a rival pope, 
and, after several unsuccessful attempts, en- 
tered Rome in 1084, had himself crowned em- 
peror by his own pope, and besieged Gregory 
in St. Angelo. He was forced to fly from 
Rome before the renewed power of the em- 
peror and died during his flight (1085) under 
the protection of the Normans of Naples. 

Although the emperor, Henry IV., attained 
all that is attainable by war and policy, his 
triumph was not as complete as we might in- 
fer. The idea of Gregory conquered the 
world, while Gregory himself died a fugitive. 

Ten years after his death his second succes- 
sor. Urban II., was able to take the initiative in 
the general affairs of the West. 

THE CRUSADES. 

Immediate Causes of the First Crusade. 

— In the last decennium of the eleventh cen- 
tury the Seljukes in Asia made alarming prog- 
ress. They took Mecca and Jerusalem. The 
pilgrims complained bitterly of the excesses 



committed by the brutal soldiery at the tomb 
of the Saviour. The Eastern emperor, Alex- 
ius, sent the most pressing entreaties for help 
to Pope Urban II., saying, that if he did not 
wish to see Christianity perish in the East he 
must render him assistance. 

After making a preliminary announcement 
of the emperor's demand, and of his own in- 
tentions, in a council at Piacenza, the pope 
crossed the Alps (November, 1094), and held a 
great council at Clermont ; at the end of this 
he called upon the people assembled to aid 
him in delivering the Holy Sepulchre from the 
infidels. More than 300,000 men fastened the 
cross upon their shoulders, and in a few months 
the cry, " God wills it^' had flown from Cler- 
mont over half Europe. Everywhere the 
greatest activity prevailed ; princes assembled 
their vassals, knights their retainers ; Godfrey 
of Bouillon was collecting an army in Lor- 
raine ; Hugo of Vermandois, Robert of Flan- 
ders, and Robert of Normandy marshalled the 
French, Normans, and English ; Raymond of 
Toulouse led the Provencals and Gascons ; and 
Bohemond of Tarent, the Norman knights of 
Naples. Pope Urban II. had secured to him- 
self the leading position in the enterprise by 
naming the Bishop Adhemar of Puy as his 
legate and representative with the army, and 
by officially announcing to Alexius the forth- 
coming help against the Turks. 

The First Crusade. — The crusade was 
opened by an irregular van of about three 
hundred thousand men, who, in four bands, 
marched down the Danube to Constantinople. 
They w^ere led by Walter the Penniless, Peter 
the Hermit, and others. Two bands only 
reached Constantinople (the other two having 
been destroyed by the Hungarians), and 
crossed over into Asia, where they were ulti- 
mately cut to pieces by the Turks. 

In May, 1097, tlie Crusaders were in Asia, 
where Nicaea was vainly invested for seven 
weeks, when it was surrendered not to them but 
to Alexius. After their departure, the Cru- 
saders annihilated the Turks near Dorylaeum. 
They then marched diagonally across Asia 
Minor ; then, turning southward, they attacked 
the most important and best fortified of all the 
Syrian towns, Antioch. Seven months were 
consumed in its siege. At length (June, 1098), 
they took it, to be besieged in their turn by 
200,000 Saracens. On June 28th this vast 
host was defeated before the walls of Antioch, 
and the way was then opened to Jerusalem. 
And now the army, in fact without head or 
leader, rushed wildly on toward its original 
destination. On June 7, 1099, the town was 
surrounded, and taken by storm on July 15th. 
The Christian fury against the infidels vented 



75 



1096—1192 A. D. 



PLATE XXXIII. 




SECOND AND THIRD CRUSADES. 



itself in a sanguinary struggle ; they then, 
with tears of rapture, and in a state of ecstatic 
piety, threw themselves down to pray at the 
Holy Sepulchre, surrounded with heaps of the 
slain. After eight days passed in the intoxi- 
cation of victory, the princes met to choose a 
ruler. They offered the crown of the new 
kingdom to Raymond of Toulouse, who, how- 
ever, declared that he was imworthy to wear 
an earthly crown in so holy a place. At last 
they applied to Godfrey of Bouillon, who, al- 
though he, like Raymond, refused the title of 
king, accepted the office, and called himself 
Protector of the Holy Sepulchre. He suc- 
ceeded in beating an Egyptian army near 
Ascalon, and thus secured the southern frontier 
of the kingdom. After that, however, it be- 
came impossible to restrain the masses of 
pilgrims who, after the fulfilment of their vow, 
longed to return home. 

The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Sec- 
ond Crusade. — The political results of this 
first crusade w^ere two : 

I. The restoration of the best part of Asia 
Minor to the Eastern Empire. 

II. The conversion of Syria into the feudal 
kingdom of Jerusalem^ chiefly French, with vas- 
sal countries : Edessa, Antiochia, and after- 
ward, Tripoli. 

The King of Jerusalem had no easy task. 
With an army consisting at the most of seven 
thousand horse and five thousand foot, he 
could hardly keep his own in the midst of a 
scarcely conquered hostile population, and 
surrounded by powerful and naturally impla- 
cable foes. Especially since the Turkish pos- 
sessions from the Tigris to the Lebanon were 
all united by Noor-ed-Deen, the Emir of 
Mosul. His taking of Edessa in 1146 caused 
the Second Crusade. Emperor Conrad III. 
and Louis VII. of France were the leaders. 
Misled by Greek scouts, the army of Conrad 
was cut to pieces by the Turks near Iconium ; 
that of Louis was wrecked among the defiles 
of the Pisidian Mountains. The relics of the 
two armies made their way into Syria, where, 
in co-operation with the Christian princes of 
Antioch and Jerusalem, they laid siege to 
Damascus, which they were unable to take. 
It was an utter failure, and in 1149 emperor 
and king returned to the West, having lost in 
two years about a million of men. 

A still greater enemy of the Christians arose 
in Salah-ed-Deen (Saladin), the founder of the 
dynasty of the Ayoubites, who, since 1184, was 
sole ruler from the sources of the Nile as far 
as the river Tisfris. He besfan the last decisive 
attack upon the Christians. On July 5, 1187, 
the Christian army was annihilated by him at 
Tiberias. The terrific news of the defeat 



spread through the land, destroying all re- 
maining strength or courage. Towns and 
castles opened their gates wherever the vic- 
torious troops appeared. Jerusalem, w^hich, 
as a holy city, Saladin wished to take by treaty, 
capitulated on October 3d. Saladin's careei 
of victory did not yet extend as far as Tripoli 
and Antioch, but the kingdom of Jerusalem, 
the pride and centre of the Christian rule, was 
lost. 

The Third Crusade. — Although after the 
failure of the Second Crusade the interest felt 
by the Western nations in the kingdom of Jeru- 
salem had greatly diminished, still the news of 
the loss of the Holy City fell like a thunderbolt 
on men's minds. Once more before its final 
extinction the flame which had kindled the 
mystic war of God blazed high in the hearts 
of men. Pope Gregory VIII. sent legates 
through every country, and through them 
watched the progress of arming, imposed a 
universal tax called Saladin's tithe, and acted 
throughout as though he had been the mon- 
arch of a large war-like and well-administered 
kingdom. The effect was wonderful. The 
monarchs of France and England met at Gisors 
and vowed to abandon their earthly quarrels, 
and to become warriors of the everlasting 
God. In Germany the aged Emperor Bar- 
barossa put on the cross, and collected to- 
gether a mass of nearly a hundred thousand 
pilgrims. All the Western nations rose to 
arms, and their ferocious war-cry was answered 
in the East by a voice of defiance quite as 
eager. Saladin had invoked the religious zeal 
of all Mohammedans, and had besides con- 
cluded alliances with the Christian rulers of 
Byzantium, Cyprus, and Armenia. The whole 
East, from the Danube to the Indus, from the 
Caspian Sea to the sources of the Nile, pre- 
pared with one intent to withstand the great 
invasion of Europe. The Eastern Christians, 
continually reinforced by the irregular van of 
the great Western armies, determined to begin 
the attack at once. 

The Siege of Acco or Ptolemais. — On 
August 28, 1 189, King Guy commenced the 
siege of the strong maritime fortress of Ptole- 
mais. Saladin hastened to the spot with his 
army, and in his turn surrounded the Christian 
camp, which lay in a wide semicircle round 
Ptolemais, and was defended by strong in- 
trenchments. It formed an iron ring round 
the besieged town, which Saladin, spite of all 
his efforts, could not break through. But the 
winter brought innumerable hardships to the 
Christians. In that small space between 
the city and the camp of Saladin more than 
a hundred thousand men were crowded to- 
gether, with insufficient shelter and uncertain 



76 



THE FOURTH CRUSADE. 



supplies of wretched food. Pestilential dis- 
eases soon broke out, which swept away thou- 
sands. 

Saladin retreated from this deadly vicinity 
to more airy quarters on the adjacent hills. 
His troops also suffered from the severe 
weather, but were far better supplied than 
the Christians with the necessaries of life. 
The Christians, however, held on ; they knew 
the great emperor was approaching. In June, 
1 190, his army had entered Cilicia and was 
preparing to cross the rapid mountain torrent 
of the Seleph. While attempting to cross on 
horseback, Barbarossa was swept away by the 
stream and drowned (1190). The highest 
hopes were destroyed by his lamentable death. 
The troops arrived at Antioch in a state of the 
deepest dejection. Thence the greater part 
returned home and a pestilence broke out 
among the rest. Barbarossa's son Frederick 
reached the camp before Ptolemais with 5,000 
men, and soon afterward followed his father 
to the grave. But shortly after this the French 
and English monarchs arrived with their fleet, 
and to the Crusaders thus reinforced, Ptole- 
mais surrendered, after a siege of twenty-three 
months (July 12, 1191). 

The taking of Ptolemais was the sole result 
of the third crusade. Rivalries and jealousies 
sprang up among the Christian leaders, es- 
pecially between the kings of France and 
England. Philip Augustus abandoned the 
crusade and returned to France. The lion- 
hearted Richard remained some time longer, 
and at last agreed to a truce with Saladin, 
by which a strip of land on the coast from 
Joppa to Acre was given to the Christians, 
and pilgrimages to the holy places were al- 
lowed. Richard, on his return, was taken 
prisoner by Leopold, Duke of Austria, and 
by order of Emperor Henry VI. was kept in 
a tower for thirteen months, and only released 
on the payment of a heavy ransom and ren- 
dering homage to the emperor. 

Consequences of the First Three Cru- 
sades. — The crusades had left their mark 
upon the world, but no such mark as their 
authors had intended. The Holy Land had 
not been recovered from the infidels ; the 
Saracens had not been converted. It had 
been found practically impossible for Chris- 
tians to treat the Moslem in the way the chil- 
dren of Israel were taught to treat the Canaan- 
ites — as men with whom no peace was to be 
made. The Christians of that day adopted 
too easily a very different principle, and re- 
garded their enemies, for some time, as men 
with whom no faith WtS to be kept. But even 
this was a rule impossible to be maintained. 
Relations necess?kily grew up between the 



opposing combatants, and ere long the com- 
mercial cities of the Mediterranean found the 
infidel a very good customer. They longed 
to get possession of Constantinople, on ac- 
count of its commanding position between 
Europe and Asia, which offered, to whoever 
should seize it, a monopoly of commerce, and 
the sovereignty of the seas. Of all the Latins, 
the Venetians alone could effect this great 
enterprise, unless their rivals in the Levantine 
trade, the Genoese, anticipated them. 

The Fourth Crusade. — At the instance of 
Pope Innocent III. a crusade, directed origi- 
nally against Egypt, was undertaken by power- 
ful French barons, aided by Baldwin, Count of 
Flanders, and Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat. 
Transports were obtained from the Venetians 
by agreeing to take Zara, a city of Dalmatia, 
for the doge Dandolo. From this moment 
these crusaders constituted, in the hands of 
Venice, a blind and brutal force, which it 
launched against the Greek Empire. They 
were ignorant alike of the motives and secret 
intelligence of the Venetians, and of the state 
of the empire they were about to attack. Ap- 
parently at the urgent request of Alexius, 
son of the Eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, 
who had been dethroned by his brother, the 
Crusaders went from Zara to Constantinople 
with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured 
the city, and replaced Alexius and his father 
on the throne (1203). It had never been the 
intention of the Venetians that the crusade 
should end thus. 

The new emperor could only satisfy the 
requisitions of his liberators by ruining his 
subjects. The Greeks murmured, the Cru- 
saders pressed and threatened. In the mean- 
time, they insulted the people in a thousand 
ways, as well as the emperor of their own 
making. Finally they set fire to some houses, 
and the flames spreading, the conflagration 
raged over the thickest and most populous 
quarter of the city, and lasted eight days. 
This event put the finishing stroke to the ex- 
asperation of the people, who rose up against 
the emperor whose restoration had brought 
so many evils in its train. Isaac died in the 
midst of the revolt, and his son Alexius was 
murdered by the Greeks. The city was then 
taken a second time by the Crusaders, its 
palaces were plundered, and its monuments 
destroyed. The barbarians scattered the bones 
of the emperors, and when they came to Jus- 
tinian's tomb, found with surprise that the 
body of the legislator betrayed no signs of de- 
cay or putrefaction. 

The Latin Empire. — Who was to have the 
honor of seating himself on Justinian's throne, 
and of founding the new empire ? The 



77 



FIFTH, SIXTH, AND SEVENTH CRUSADES. 



worthiest was the aged Dandolo. But the 
Venetians were opposed to this. What these 
merchants desired were, posts, commercial de- 
pots, a long chain of factories, which might 
secure them the whole of the great eastern 
highway. They chose for their own share the 
maritime coast and the islands, together with 
three out of the eight quarters of Constanti- 
nople, with the fantastic title of " Lords of one- 
fourth mid a half of the Roman Empire y 

The empire, reduced to one-fourth of its 
limits, was bestowed on Baldwin, Count of 
Flanders, a descendant of Charlemagne. Bon- 
iface, of Montferrat, became king of Thessa- 
lonica. The greatest part of the empire was 
portioned out into fiefs. 

The Asiatic part of the Eastern Empire w^as 
not conquered, however, but formed two dis- 
tinct Greek realms. Theodore Lascaris be- 
came emperor at Nicsea, Alexis Comnenus 
emperor at Trebisonde. 

The results of this memorable event were 
not as great as might have been imagined. 
The Latin empire of Constantinople lasted 
even a shorter time than the Latin kingdom of 
Jerusalem, for Michael Palaeologus, of the 
Nicaean Empire, put an end to it in 1261. 
Venice alone derived material advantage from 
it, which she did largely. 

The Fifth Crusade. — Four different ex- 
peditions bear the name of the Fifth Crusade. 

I St. The Children's Crusade in 12 12, when 
thousands of French and German boys made 
their way to Marseilles and the Italian seaports 
in order to be conveyed thence to tiie Holy 
Land. But few returned, many perished by 
the way, and still more were carried off to 
slave markets. 

2d. An abortive expedition for the re- 
covery of the Holy Land, by Andrew, King of 
Hungary, in 1217. 

3d. An expedition for the conquest of Dam- 
ietta in Egypt, by John of Brienne, which 
was taken, but lost again in 1221. 

4th. The crusade of Emperor Frederick H., 
who had promised at his coronation to under- 
take a crusade, but continually had postponed 
it. When, finally, (1227) he was about to start, 
he professed to be unable to proceed by a 
contagious disease in his army, from which he 
himself was suffering. Pope Gregory IX. ex- 
communicated him now for continued procras- 
tination. Nevertheless, the emperor, in the 
following year, embarked on his crusade. His 
vigor as a soldier, and still more, his tact in 
conciliating the Saracens, enabled him to get 
possession of Jerusalem, where he crowned 
himself. He received from the sultan, El 
Kamil, Nazareth and a strip of land reaching 
to the coast, together with Sidon. After the 



departure of Frederick, tlie Christians in Pales- 
tine enjoyed the fruits of his military prowess 
and wise policy, living in quiet and prosperity 
in the cities and territories which Frederick 
had compelled the sultan to cede. This pros- 
perity, however, was suddenly put an end to 
by the violent irruption into Syria and Egypt 
of the Mamelukes. 

The Mamelukes. — They were slaves (as 
the word 77iamlnk imports), purchased by the 
sultans and trained as soldiers for the pur- 
pose of forming their body-guard and the nu- 
cleus of their army. They placed one of their 
number, Melik es-Saleh, on the throne, hop- 
ing to govern him without difficulty. But 
when the new sultan found his authority suf- 
ficiently well-established, he dismissed them 
from his service and formed a new body- 
guard of the Bahrite Mamelukes, who were so 
called from the fact that their barracks were 
situated on the island of Roda, in the Nile, or 
Bahr. 

With these Bahrite Mamelukes he attacks 
his uncle, Ismail, the ruler of Damascus. The 
latter allies himself with other Syrian princes 
and with tlie Christians of Palestine, but is 
defeated by Melik es-Saleh, whose army had 
been reinforced by the Turkish mercenaries 
of the Prince of Charesmia, who had recent- 
ly been dethroned by the Mongols. The Egy- 
ptians take Jerusalem, Damascus, Tiberias, and 
Ascalon (1249). 

The Sixth Crusade. — Louis IX. of 
France, roused by the loss of Jerusalem, and 
with a view" to prevent the Egyptians from 
further encroaching on the Holy Land, un- 
dertakes a campaign against Egypt, takes Dam- 
ietta ; but, while marching to Cairo, is taken 
prisoner, together with his army, at Mansura. 
They were, however, allowed to ransom them- 
selves. This provoked the rage of the Bahr- 
ite Mamelukes. They murdered the sultan, 
and appointed their own commander, Ibek, to 
the Egyptian throne (1250). 

Bebars, w^ho had risen from being a slave to 
the position of leader of the Mamelukes, was 
one of the ablest of this dynasty. In the 
course of four campaigns he annihilates the 
last remnants of the kingdom of Jerusalem, 
and rules with sagacity, moderation, and jus- 
tice. He brings to Cairo the last representa- 
tive of the Abasside Chalifs, who had recently 
been dethroned by the Mongols (1258), rec- 
ognizes his authority, and permits him nomi- 
nally to occupy the throne. 

The Seventh and Last Crusade. — Not 
disheartened by his former failure, the pious 
Louis determines to maVe another attempt to 
annihilate the Mamelukes, the terrible ene- 
mies of Christendom. He perished; however. 



78 



ECCLESIASTICAL MILITARY ORDERS. 



with the greater part of his army, at Tunis 
(1270). 

After this failure the pope failed in all his 
endeavors to excite any enthusiasm for the 
Holy War. One Syrian fortress after the 
other fell into the hands of the victorious 
Mussulmans, until at length, and last of all, 
the dearly won Ptolemais (Acco) was captured 
after an obstinate resistance, in 1292, just at 
the time when Pope Boniface VI IL took the 
first steps toward his great conflict with Philip 
the Fair, King of France, which resulted in 
the deepest humiliation of the papal power. 
The system of Gregory VIL declined simulta- 
neously in Europe and in Asia. 

The Three Ecclesiastical Military Or- 
ders. — Nothing can more strikingly evince 
the ascendency of Europe than the resistance 
of the Prankish settlements in Syria against 
the whole power of the Moslems. Several of 
their victories were obtained against such dis- 
parity of numbers that they may be compared 
with whatever is most illustrious in history or 
romance. These, however, were less due to 
the descendants of the first Crusaders than to 
those volunteers from Europe whom martial 
ardor and religious zeal impelled to the ser- 
vice. It was the penance commonly imposed 
upon men of rank to serve a number of years 
under the banner of the cross. Thus a per- 
petual supply of warriors was poured in from 
Europe. Of these defenders, the most re- 
nowned had enrolled themselves in one of the 
three ecclesiastical military orders. They 
were : the Knights of the Hospital of St. John 
(black mantle, white cross), the Knights Tem- 
plars (white mantle, red cross), and///^ Teutonic 
Knights of St. Mary (white mantle, black 
cross). The orders of the Temple and of St. 
John owed — the former their foundation, the 
latter their power and wealth — to noble 
knights. They were military and aristocratic 
brotherhoods, associated together in defence 
of the holy places. In battle the two orders 
took, by turn, the van and the rear, those who 
had newly taken the cross, and were unaccus- 
tomed to Asiatic warfare, being stationed be- 
tween them. 

The first founders of the Teutonic order 
were honest burghers of Lubeck and Bremen. 
After the disasters which followed the death 
of Barbarossa, when the army was wasting 
away with disease and famine before Acre, 
these merchants ran up the sails of their ships 
into tents to receive the sick and starving. 
Duke Frederick (Barbarossa's son), seeing the 
advantage of a German order, both to main- 
tain the German interests and to relieve the 
necessities of German pilgrims, raised them 
to an order of knighthood. 



General Results of the Crusades. — They 
helped to break down the power of the feudal 
aristocracy and give prominence to the royal 
power. The cities received, in return for the 
contributions and loans they made to their 
overlords, charters conferring special and valu- 
able privileges. They gave great spur to the 
commercial enterprise of the merchants of the 
Italian cities. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa ob- 
tained possession of most of the seaports and 
islands of the eastern basin of the Mediter- 
ranean and of the Black Sea, the command of 
the latter securing to their merchants a mo- 
nopoly of the Northern trade and a considera- 
ble share in that of Asia. 

ENGLAND AND FRANCE DURING THE 
AGE OF THE CRUSADES. 

Henry II. and Thomas ^ Becket. — Henry 
II., the son of Mathilda and Geoffrey of Anjou, 
was the first Plantagenet King of England. 
The family name of Plantagenet was given to 
Fulk IV., first Count of Anjou, because he was 
accustomed to wear in his cap a sprig of 
broom (called in French//^/^/<? de genet., from the 
'L'ciim planta genista). When Henry II. ascended 
the throne of England, in 1145, he was already 
master of a third of our present France. He 
had inherited Anjou and Touraine from his 
father, Maine and Normandy from his mother, 
and the seven provinces of the south (Foitou, 
Saintonge, Aiwergne, Perigord, the Limousin, the 
Angoumois, andGicyenne), as the dowry of his wife 
Eleanor, divorced queen of Charles VII. of 
France. Henry began his reign by curbing 
the power of the nobility. Their numerous 
castles (built in King Stephen's time) were de- 
stroyed ; order was restored in the kingdom by 
the appointment of royal commissioners to 
administer justice ; and the good will of the 
people was gained by the grant of charters to 
many of the cities and chief towns. Henry's 
chief adviser during the first six years of his 
reign was Thomas a Becket, a person of great 
natural talent and most agreeable manners, 
who had acquired great favor with Theobald, 
Archbishop of Canterbury. When age and 
infirmity warned the primate to retire from 
the chancellorship he urged the king to be- 
stow it on Becket, who very soon rose so high 
in the royal esteem that Henry and Becket 
grew to be on such terms of intimacy as rarely 
take place between sovereign and subject. 
On Theobald's death the king at once forced 
on the monks of Canterbury, and on Thomas 
himself, his election as archbishop. The clergy 
opposed the nomination as unsuitable — as 
scarcely decent. But, after the delay of some 
thirteen months, Becket was duly consecrated. 
The secret of this proceeding no doubt was 



79 



PHILIP AUGUSTUS OF FRANCE. 



that Henry had good reason to expect that 
Becket would be found as subservient to his 
wishes in relation to the Church as he had 
been in relation to the State. 

But from the hour of consecration he seemed 
to have become another man. As he had hith- 
erto rivalled the courtiers in splendor, pleasure, 
and pomp, so would he now by strictness of 
life equal the sanctity of the Saints ; as hitherto 
to the king, so did he now attach himself to 
the interests of the Church. The grand strife 
began when Henry proposed his scheme for 
superseding the Church courts, with their 
exclusive right of justice over the whole body 
of educated men throughout the realm. This 
scheme was contained in sixteen canons known 
under the name of the Constitutions of Clarendon. 
Their design was to subject the clergy on all 
questions relating to temporal matters, and 
concerning the interest of the laity, to the 
authority of the crown. Another constitution 
prohibited all appeals to Rome without the 
consent of the king ; another required that no 
dignified clergyman should leave the kingdom 
without the king's permission ; and another 
declared that no tenant-in-chief of the crown, 
neither an officer of the king's household, 
should be excommunicated without the king's 
approval. 

After a passionate refusal the primate at 
last set his seal to the Constitutions, but his as- 
sent was soon retracted, and the king's savage 
resentment threw the whole moral advantage 
of the position in the primate's hand. On 
October 4, 1164, Becket, after reading mass, 
appeared before the royal council at North- 
ampton without his archiepiscopal dress, but 
cross in hand. He forbade the earl, who 
wished to announce the judgment to him, to 
speak, since no layman had power to sit in 
judgment on his spiritual father ; he again put 
himself under protection of God and the Ro- 
man Church, and then passed from the court 
to a church close by, from whence he escaped 
to the Continent. For six years he remained 
an exile. Then Henry, under threat of inter- 
dict, was reconciled with Becket, who, in 11 70, 
returned to England. But that year he was 
again embroiled with the king and was mur- 
dered by four knights of Henry's court in 
consequence of Henry's passionate outbreak 
against him (December 29, 1170). In order to 
obtain absolution for the rash words which led 
to the crime, the king promised to abolish all 
customs hostile to the Church. Two years 
later, when attacked by his sons and the King 
of Scots, Henry did penance at Becket's tomb 
and submitted to be scourged by the clergy of 
the Cathedral. Becket was canonized as a 
saint and martyr by the pope in 11 73 a.d. 



Henry survived the murder of Becket almost 
twenty years, during which the southeastern 
part of Ireland acknowledged him as lord 
(11 71), and the King of Scots, William the 
Lion, did homage to him as his suzerain 
(11 75). The last years of his life were em- 
bittered by the conduct of his sons, who con- 
spired with the King of France, Philip Au- 
gustus, against their father. 

Philip Augustus of France. — The Cape- 
tian kings offered themselves to the French 
people as the born defenders of the weakest, 
as the guardians of order. This characteristic 
of royalty appears distinctly for the first time 
in the contest of Louis VI. Since the twelfth 
century there was someone in the world who 
washed that the roads should be safe, that the 
unarmed rustics should not be killed, and that 
no villages should be burned, and that man was 
the King of France. Louis VII., the son of 
Louis VI., did nothing but make a very brill- 
iant marriage. Eleanor of Aquitaine brought 
him as her dowry almost all the South of 
France. Unfortunately this marriage did not 
produce the expected results. It was soon 
broken by a divorce, and then Eleanor married 
the King of England, Henry II., who found 
himself now a much greater lord in France 
than the king. But a new opinion became es- 
tablished, a new point of law, which did more 
for him than his marriage with Eleanor. The 
communal towns claimed to be subject directly 
to the king, which simply meant, it is for the 
the king to decide the questions between the 
city and its seigneur, for the latter cannot be 
at once the judge and a party in the suit. 
Although, therefore, the direct possessions 
of Philip Augustus on his accession in 1180 
could not be compared with those of Henry 
II., his moral power as defender of the French 
communes was immense. Philip Augustus 
availed himself of this to break the power of 
the Plantagenets. 

The absence of Richard, successor of Henry 
II., first as Crusader, and then as prisoner in 
Germany, enabled Philip Augustus to invade 
Normandy. John, traitor to his brother, as to 
his father, had joined the French king; while 
the lords of Aquitaine rose in revolt under the 
troubadour, Bertrand de Born. Richard on 
his return, could do nothing but hold Philip 
in check on the Norman frontier, surprise his 
treasure at Fretehil, and reduce to submission 
the rebels of Aquitaine. A truce (1194-1196), 
which these successes wrested from Philip, 
gave him breathing space for a final blow at 
his opponent. During this truce he erected 
on the eastern border of Normandy a formid- 
able entrenched camp to cover Rouen. At 
a height of 30 feet above the Seine rose the 



80 



THE ALBIGENSES— LOUIS IX. 



of Philip Augustus, with a French army, to 
their assistance. This army occupied South- 
ern England when John died. But the Earl 
of Pembroke, who became protector to the 
young king, succeeded in reconciling many of 
the discontented chiefs, and in compelling 
Louis to withdraw from the kingdom. 

Five years later this Louis (VIII.) mounted 
the French throne, which he occupied only 
three years (i 223-1 226), perishing of camp 
fever in the war against Raymond of Toulouse, 
the aider and abettor of the Albigensian 
heresy. 

Crusade against the Albigenses. — In the 
border countries where Christendom, Islam, 
and Persian fire-worship met, horrible heresies 
had sprung up. A certain Manes, a Persian 
who lived in the third century after Christ, 
after which the heretics were called Mani- 
chaeans, had taught the belief in two distinct 
powers, one of good and one of evil, both 
eternal, and of equal authority. 

The Manichaeans, driven from Asia, had 
settled in Bulgaria, where nominally they be- 
came Christians, but boldly denied trans-sub- 
stantiation, rejected confession, and also the 
sacrament of marriage. Following the course 
of the Danube, they had spread over Western 
Europe, but their stronghold was Languedoc. 

They were known as Albigenses, from one 
of their chief places, Alby, in Languedoc. 
Pope Innocent III. at first employed against 
them only spiritual weapons. Before pro 



scribing, he tried to convert them. 



Among 



the most zealous of the missionaries were 
Pierre de Castelnau and Raoul, both Cistercian 
monks, and Diego Azebes, Bishop of Osma, 
and his sub-prior, Dominic, both Spaniards. 
They began that course of austerity and of 
preaching among the people which was ulti- 
mately to make of Dominic a saint and the 
founder of a great religious order. 

In 1205 Pierre de Castelnau repaired to 
Toulouse to demand of Raymond VI. a formal 
promise to suppress heresy. 

One of Raymond's knights overtook the 
monk on the Rhone and stabbed him. This 
murder was the signal for war against Ray- 
mond VI., a war undertaken on the plea of 
a personal crime, but in reality for the ex- 
tirpation of heresy in Southern France. 

Rome cried for help to the warriors of 
Northern France (1208). A war, distinguished 
even among wars of religion by merciless 
atrocity, destroyed the Albigensian heresy, 
and with that heresy the prosperity, the civil- 
ization, the literature, the national existence 
of Languedoc (i 208-1 244). 

Louis IX. — The son and successor of Louis 
VIII. effected what his father and s^randfather 



had attempted in vain, by uniting to the crown 
the territory of the counts of Toulouse. He 
gave, indeed, the government of the county, to- 
gether with the heiress, to his brother Alfonso ; 
but the latter dying without issue, it devolved 
upon the crown (1271). The kings had already 
acquired possession, by purchase, of the do- 
mains which Simon of Montfort had acquired 
in the mountains of Languedoc, in the course 
of his crusade against the Albigenses, and 
which Montfort I'Amaury found himself un- 
able to maintain. Louis IX. obtained by pur- 
chase the important county of Macon (1238). 
While this king was yet a minor, his prudent 
mother, Blanche, of Castile, had given assist- 
ance to the Count of Champagne against his 
powerful enemies on the condition that he 
should surrender to the crown the counties of 
Blois and Chartres. Thus the domains of the 
French king became everywhere extended in 
the vicinity of the most powerful vassals, so 
that it was henceforward as difficult for them 
to make any effort against him individually as 
to unite their forces in any common attempt to 
resist the royal authority. In order to con- 
firm this authority still further he endeavored 
to render it respectable by a strict administra- 
tion of justice. The king was the acknowl- 
edged protector of public justice, and every 
man who was refused his right was sure to 
obtain it from the royal bailiff. 

Louis IX. endeared himself to his subjects 
by the simplicity of his manners. After a fair, 
held upon the sod, he seated himself under an 
oak, in the forest of Vincennes, and gave hear- 
ing and redress to every Frenchman. He 
established laws [Etablissemens), the violation 
of which seemed to be an act of impiety. 
The cases presented for the royal decision 
(C^i'i'P^j'^//^) were multiplied ; for what French- 
man would not gladlv receive judgment from 
the good king Louis. Formerly the mon- 
archy was founded on the force of arms, but 
now the royal authority was established on the 
virtues of the sovereign. 

Henry III., King of England. — Henry 
made several attempts to recover the posses- 
sions of the English crown in France. The 
first was in 1224, and was partially successful. 
The second, in 1229, was more considerable, 
and was conducted by the king in person, but 
ended in failure and disgrace. Not less signal 
was the disgrace which attended an expedition 
into France in 1242. An expedition into 
Gascony in 1254 had a somewhat better termi- 
nation. It sufficed to put an end to the at- 
tempts of the kings of Castile to assume the 
sovereignty over that province. But the hold 
of the English crown on those territories was 
slight, and the Normans in England at this 



83 



BARBAROSSA. 



time had ceased to feel any deep interest in 
the connection which the court strove to per- 
petuate between the two countries. 

Nothing is more observable during this 
reign than the complaints made against favor- 
itism and especially against favoritism as be- 
stowed upon foreigners. This weakness in 
the king, together with his habitual insincerity 
and his want of courage, economy, and self-gov- 
ernment, exposed him to much humiliation and 
suffering. His reign extended to more than 
half a century (1216-1271) and was filled 
with civil war or with the intrigues of faction. 
It was natural that the royal authority should 



decline during this period. The doctrine ot 
resistance became familiar to the minds of 
all men. It is in these circumstances that the 
House of Coj?imons makes its appearance. On 
January 20, 1265, Simon de Montfort sum- 
moned a parliament at London in the king's 

I name. In addition to the great barons and 
prelates he summoned two knights from each 

' shire and two deputies from each city and 
borough. They all sat in the same chamber 
and continued to do so imtil the reign of 
Edward III., when the Commons assembled 
separately, while the barons formed the House 
of Lords. 



HOHENSTAUFEN AND GUELPHS. 



GERMANY AND ITALY DURING THE AGE 
OF THE CRUSADES. 

Lothar the Saxon. — At the death of Em- 
peror Henry V., without direct heir, in 11 25, 
Frederick of Hohenstaufen, his eldest nephew, 
inherited, in virtue of this relationship, the 
patrimonial estates of the Salic House, which, 
added to his large possessions in his own Duchy 
of Suabia, made him one of the most powerful 
princes of his time. He expected to succeed 
his uncle on the imperial throne. But the great 
unpopularity of the last Salic emperors, and a 
disposition to make the empire elective, were 
skilfully used by Henry the Proud, head of 
the house of Guelph, and Duke of Bavaria, 
to bring about the election of Lothar the 
Saxon. 

Henry was rewarded for his zeal, not only 
by the hand of Gertrude, Lothar's daughter 
and heiress, but also by the Saxon duchy. 
Thus were united in the Guelph family the 
two large duchies of Bavaria and Saxony. 
Lothar seemed to have only two objects : to 
oppress and humble the nephews of the late 
emperor, and to secure the succession to the 
empire for his son-in-law, Henry the Proud. 

Conrad III. — But the amazing prepon- 
derance of the house of Guelph alienated the 
princes from it, and on Lothar's death (1137) 
they conferred the imperial crown on Conrad 
of Hohenstaufen. One of the first acts of 
Conrad III. was to order Henry the Proud to 
resign one of his duchies, since two could not 
legally be held by the same person. On his 
refusal to comply with this demand he was 
deprived of both. He died within a year 
(1139), leaving an infant son, Henry the Lion. 

Barbarossa. — Conrad III., whose eldest 
son, Henry, who had already been elected 



^i'^S ^f ^^^^ Roma7is {i.e., declared heir-pre- 
sumptive), died before his father, secured the 
succession, not for his second son, a minor, 
but for his nephew, Frederick, Duke of Suabia 
(Barbarossa). The princes elected him unan- 
imously (1152) because he was, through his 
mother, Judith, sister of Henry the Proud, 
related to the Guelphs, and hope was enter- 
tained that his election would make an end 
to the strife between the two rival houses. In 
the beginning it seemed as if this would be 
the case. For the cousins, of nearly equal 
age, were fast friends. Both Saxony and 
Bavaria were restored to Henry the Lion, who 
on his part accompanied Barbarossa, whose 
great ambition was to be master of this fair 
land, on his expedition to Italy. Five times 
he crossed the Alps with magnificent armies, 
to be wasted by pestilence and the sword. In 
1 1 74 he entered Lombardy for the fifth time. 
Henry the Lion deserted him at a critical 
moment, and, thanks to this desertion, Bar- 
barossa was beaten on the decisive field of 
Legnano (1176). He had to make peace, sub- 
mit to the demands of the pope, and grant the 
Italian cities their municipal rights. But 
Henry the Lion was made to suffer for his 
treason. He was deprived of his possessions 
and estates (1180). Once more Barbarossa 
went to Italy (1184-T186), not to fight, but to 
celebrate the marriage of his heir-apparent, 
Henry, with Constance, daughter of Roger II., 
aunt and heiress of William II,, the last legiti- 
mate Norman King of Naples and Sicily. 

Frederick II. — The son of this marriage 
was Emperor Frederick II., ''the wonder of the 
world'' Under him Sicily flourished greatly. 
More Italian than German, he visited Ger- 
many only once during thirty years, loving 



83 



1155-1223 A. D. 



Plate XXXIV. 




THE MAGNA CHARTA. 



crowning fortress of the whole Chateau Gail- 
lard {Sancy Castle). " I will take it were its 
walls of iron ! " Philip exclaimed as he saw it 
rise. " I would hold it were the walls of but- 
ter," was Richard's defiant answer. But the 
building of the castle had exhausted his re- 
sources. Money was wanted to continue the 
war against Philip Augustus. Just at this mo- 
ment he heard that Vidomar, Viscount of 
Limoges had found a treasure upon his estate. 
Richard demanded that the whole of it be given 
up to him, and on being refused, besieged Vido- 
mar in the Castle of Chaluz. During this 
siege he was struck down by an arrow from 
the walls, 1199. His brother John was ac- 
knowledged in England and Normandy, while 
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine did homage to 
Arthur, the son of his elder brother, Geoffrey, 
the late Duke of Bretagne. The ambition of 
Philip Augustus, who protected his cause, 
turned the day against Arthur ; the Angevins 
rose against the French garrisons, and John 
was at last (1200) owned as master of the whole 
dominion of his house. When Arthur tried 
again the chances of war, he was taken pris- 
oner by his uncle, and finally, as men believed, 
murdered by his uncle's hand (1203). Philip 
Augustus summoned him to answer before his 
peers of France the charge of murdering a 
vassal of the French crown. John, paying no 
attention to this summons, was adjudged 
guilty of the crime and pronounced to have 
forfeited all his fiefs in France. Almost im- 
mediately everyone of the English possessions 
in France, excepting Guyenne and a part of 
Poitou, fell into the hands of Philip Augustus 
(1204). 

The Magna Charta. — When John was 
driven from Normandy, in 1204, the Norman 
nobles were compelled to make their election 
between the island and the continent. Shut 
up by the sea with the people whom they had 
hitherto oppressed and despised, they grad- 
ually came to regard England as their country 
and the English as their countrymen. The 
two races so long hostile soon found that they 
had common interests and common enemies. 
Both were alike aggrieved by the tyranny of 
a bad king, who, by his refusal to acknowledge 
Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, had brought England under a papal in- 
terdict, that is, had deprived both races of the 
consolations of religion. As John paid no re- 
gard to this measure of coercion, the pope ab- 
solved his subjects from their allegiance and 
handed England over to the King of France, 
Philip Augustus. Resisted at home, and 
threatened from abroad, John now made an ab- 
ject submission, laying his crown at the foot of 
Pandulph, the papal legate. He made him- 



self the vassal of the pope, receiving back from 
him the kingdoms of England and Ireland, 
which he had delivered to Innocent, and en- 
gaged that a yearly rent should be paid to 
Rome by the King of England and his heirs. 
What was the cause of this sudden submission ? 
John had formed a great alliance against 
Philip Augustus. The barons of Poitou in the 
South, and the Count of Flanders in the North, 
would simultaneously attack France, while an 
imperial army under the Emperor Otto should 
join Flanders, and John himself should go to 
Poitou. But for the success of this vast com- 
bination, a reconciliation with the pope was 
indispensable, for none of his allies could fight 
side by side with an excommunicated king. 
As a political measure the success of John's 
submission was complete. John was enabled 
to la'nd in Poitou and cross the Loire in 
triumph. At the same time Emperor Otto 
IV. invaded France from the North. For a 
moment the cause of Philip Augustus seemed 
lost. But the French communes from all sides 
joined the royal army, and at the great battle 
of Bouvines the French were victorious. 
When tlie news of the French victory at Bou- 
vines reached Poitou, John was at once de- 
serted by the Poitevin barons and had to beat 
a precipitate retreat. On his landing in Eng- 
land the barons held a meeting at St. Ed- 
mundsbury, and swore on the high altar to 
demand from him the observance of Henry's 
charter and the laws of the Confessor. They 
presented themselves in arms before the king 
and preferred their claim. John replied that 
he must be allowed some time for considera- 
tion. Finally, Stephen Langton, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, united with the barons in ex- 
torting from him in the meadow of Runny- 
mede (an island in the Thames, near Windsor) 
the Magna Charta, the foundation of English 
constitutional liberty. It secured two great 
principles : ist, that the king could take the 
money of his subjects only when it was voted 
to him for public objects; and 2d, * that he 
could not punish or imprison them at his will, 
but could only punish them after conviction, 
according to law, by their countrymen (June 
19, 1215). 

Magna Charta was written in Latin and is 
still preserved in the British Museum. It has 
been ratified thirty-nine times by different 
monarchs of England. The last one who did 
so was Henry VI. 

The reign of John closed in 1216. His son 
and successor, Henry III., was then only ten 
years of age. The ascendency of the barons 
at the time of requiring the Magna Charta 
had so far declined subsequently that they 
had invited Prince Louis of France, eldest son 



81 



THE SICILIAN VESPERS — HOUSE OF ANJOU. 



most to surround himself with poets, artists, 
and philosophers in his brilliant Sicilian court. 
But he became involved in quarrels with one 
pope after another ; he was twice excommu- 
nicated ; again the Italian cities raised the 
war-cry of Guelph and Ghibelline, and he 
died in the midst of the long struggle (1250). 
He was really the last emperor. 

Frederick II., who sent his trophies to 
Rome to be guarded by his own subjects in 
his own city, was a Roman Caesar in a sense 
in which no other emperor was after him. 

Conrad IV. and Manfred. — His son, Con- 
rad IV. (i 250-1 254), only showed himself in 
Italy to meet his death. Thus the empire es- 
caped out of the hands of the Hohenstaufen, 
and the King of England's brother (Richard 
of Cornwall), and the King of Castile (Alfonso 
X.), each thought himself emperor. Conrad's 
son, the little Corradino, was not of age to 
dispute anything with anybody. But the 
kingdom of Naples remained in the grasp of 
the bastard Manfred, the true son of Frederick 
II., brilliant and witty as his father. 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, to 
whom the pope gave the two Sicilies, defeated 
Manfred, who was betrayed by his barons, at 
Beneventum (1266). Manfred fell on the field. 
Charles of Anjou would have had the poor ex- 
communicated corpse remain unburied ; but 
the French themselves brought a stone each, 
and so reared the hero a tomb. 

Corradino. — The fierce conqueror of Na- 
ples was nowise softened by his easy victory. 
He scattered over the country a swarm of 
ravenous agents, who devoured everything. 
Matters were carried to such an extreme that 
even the pope remonstrated. All Italy re- 
sounded with complaints, which echoed beyond 
the Alps. The whole Ghibelline party of 
Naples and of Tuscany implored the aid of 
Corradino. The heroic youth had long been 
detained by his mother, but as soon as he had 
attained the age of fifteen she found it impos- 
sible to hold him back. His friend, Frederick 
of Austria, joined his fortunes. They crossed 
the Alps with hardly four thousand men-at- 
arms. They were, however, reinforced by the 
Ghibellines of Italy. The men were ani- 



mated with the best spirit, and when tiiey en> 
countered, behind the Tagliacozzo, the army 
of Charles of Anjou, they boldly crossed the 
river, and put to flight all who faced them. 
They thought the victory theirs, when Charles, 
with his reserve, suddenly fell upon them. 
They were annihilated, and Corradino was 
taken prisoner. He was brought to Naples, 
where the last male of the Hohenstaufen was 
beheaded, together with his inseparable friend^ 
Frederick of Austria (October 29, 1269). 

The Sicilian Vespers. — Charles's oppres- 
sive rule led to a revolt of his island subjects 
and to the great massacre known as the Sicil- 
ian Vespers, thus called because at Vesper- 
time, on Easter Monday, 1282, the rising took 
place. All of the hated race of Frenchmen 
were either killed or driven out of the island. 
Peter of Aragon, husband of Constance of 
Hohenstaufen, soon after this occurrence, was 
called to the throne of Sicily. Charles in vain 
had recourse to arms, and died (1285) of vexa- 
tion for his loss. 

Greatness of the House of Anjou. — The 
house of Anjou retained the kingdom of Na- 
ples, the territory in the vicinity of Rome, and 
the marquisate of Ancona. 

Princes of commanding talent, descended 
from this family, acquired the crowns of 
Hungary, Dalmatia, Slavonia, Croatia, and 
Poland. No royal French family had possessed 
more extensive territories since the time of 
Charlemagne ; and if their dominions had been 
united under one head, or had been capable of 
forming a whole, it would have become even 
in that age the greatest power in Europe. 

The founder of this house was a brother of 
St. Louis. His admirer, Villani, has left a ter- 
rible picture of this dark ftian^ who slept little, 
and was to the saintly king a demon tempter. 
He had married Beatrice, the youngest of the 
four daughters of the count of Prot^ence. The 
three oldest were queens (wives of Louis IX., 
Henry III., and Richard of Cornwall), and 
used to make Beatrice sit on a stool at their 
feet. She inflamed still more the violent and 
grasping disposition of her husband, for she 
required a throne as well as her sisters, no 
matter at what cost. 



THE AGE OF THE MONGOL INVASIONS. 



THE FIRST MONGOL INVASION OF ASIA. 

Jenghis Khan. — In the thirteenth century 
revolutions occurred on the Amoor River in 
Northeastern Asia which unexpectedly and 
fearfully disturbed the countries between the 



Chinese Sea and the Oder. A great khan, who 
ruled over 30,000 families on the banks of the 
Selenga, died before his son Temuchin had 
attained to man's estate. The horde was con- 
sequently divided under different heads, and 
only thirteen families persevered in their 



84 



JENGHIS KHAN. 



allegiance. Temuchin, as he grew up, dis- 
played a penetrating and aspiring genius. He 
defeated his enemies and acquired renown. 
About 1206 A.D. the nation held a conven- 
tion on the banks of the Selenga. A sage 
rokse up and said, " Brethren, the great God 
of Heaven has given the dominion of the 
world to our chief, Temuchin, whom he ap- 
pointed Jenghis Kahn " {Universal Sovereign). 
The Mongols then held up their hands and 
swore to follow Temuchin, the Jenghis Khan. 

The Conquest of Asia. — Jenghis Khan, 
resolved to traverse the whole earth, and only 
to give peace to the conquered, broke forth 
from the cold and savage wilderness, invaded 
China, overran the peninsula of Corea, 
marched westward through the mountains, 
subdued Thibet, proceeded to Cashmere and 
destroyed the empire of the Chowaresmians, 
which reached from India to the Caspian Sea. 

When Jenghis Khan died (1227), in the sixty- 
fourth year of his age, the conquest of Asia 
was continued by his sons and grandsons. 
Ilulaku, grandson of Jenghis Khan, in 1258 
A.D. besieged and conquered Bagdad, the seat 
of the Abasside Caliph, and the point of union 
among all the Moslem of the Sunnite sect. In 
the 656th year of the Hegira the fifty-sixth 
successor of the prophet was trodden to pieces 
by horses amid the tumult of the sacking of 
his capital. Forty days the Mongols plun- 
dered the ancient seat of Arabian splendor ; 
and their swords deprived 200,000 of its inhab- 
itants of their lives. The Mongols then pro- 
ceeded with increased forces to the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, and the Italian cities apprehended 
the destruction of their commerce on the 
Arabian Gulf. Aleppo quickly fell before their 
arms ; they took Damascus and entered tlie 
Holy Land. But Seif-ed-din, sultan of the 
Mamelukes in Egypt, defeated their troops 
near the w^ell of Goliah (1260), and his suc- 
cessor, Bebars, deprived them of their Syrian 
conquests. To this Prince Achmed Mostaser, 
last of the Abassides, fled in the garb of mourn- 
ing. The sultan reverently granted him an 
asylum at Kahira and a competent income ; 
and the refugee gave him in return the sanc- 
tion of the prophet's name. During two cen- 
turies and a half these titular emperors of the 
world continued to live on the charity of the 
Mamelukes. 

This was the end of the Arabic Empire and 
the Arabic civilization, which surpassed, at the 
time of its overthrow, the civilization of the 
West. 

Municipal administration and police secur- 
ity and order, external comforts and luxuries, 
were on a higher level in Bagdad and Damas- 
cus than either in Paris or London. Science 



and art were cultivated in Syria and Persia 
with at least as much success as in Europe. 

In the former, as well as in the latter, Aris- 
totle was studied, jurisprudence and theology 
were reduced to a science, and poetry flour- 
ished in youthful freshness. 

It was, therefore, the greatest tragedy which 
our historical knowledge records when the 
highly cultivated Eastern world was devastated 
and destroyed forever by an overwhelming 
flood of barbarians. The savage Mongolian 
hordes destroyed everything before them. It 
v/as no revivifying flood, like that which en- 
riched the Roman soil when the Germans in- 
vaded it. Jenghis Khan's hordes knew no joy 
beyond building huge heaps of the skulls of 
the slain and marching their horses over the 
ruins of burnt cities. Wherever they passed 
there was an end to all culture and to the 
future prosperity of nations ; a dreary savage 
barbarism pressed upon countries which but a 
century before could have rivalled in civiliza- 
tion the very flower of Europe. Here and 
there, perchance, Islam could still enter the 
lists of military prowess with the Christian 
States, but her intellectual vigor was broken, 
and the dominion of the earth was thus for- 
ever secured to the more fortunate nations of 
the West. 

RISE, GLORY, AND FALL OF OLD RUSSIA. 

The Land and the People. — More than 
one thousand years ago the ancestors of the 
Russians (the Slavonians) occupied a small 
district near the sources of the Volga, Dnieper, 
and Western Dvina. From those humble 
beginnings they have gradually grown into a 
great nation, with a territory of nearly eight 
and a half millions of square miles, stretching 
from the Baltic to Behring Straits, and from 
the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea and the Cas- 
pian. This process of expansion, which is still 
going on with unabated rapidity, was origi- 
nally produced by purely economical causes. 
The natural increase of population demanded 
an increased production of grain, which was 
most easily effected by extending the area of 
cultivation. To the eastward they had a bound- 
less expanse of thinly populated virgin land, 
consisting of two contiguous regions, differing 
widely from each other. The northern region 
was a land of forests, intersected by many 
rivers and containing numerous lakes and 
marshes, where excessive labor was remuner- 
ated by rather scanty crops. The southern 
region was a treeless prairie covered with a 
rich, black soil of marvellous fertility. But, 
while the Finnic tribes of the forest region 
were little disposed to molest the good-natured 



85 



OLD RUSSIA, 



Russian settlers, the roving Tatars, who occu- 
pied the southern prairies, proved a terrible 
obstacle to colonization. 

Old Russia. — About the middle of the 
ninth century (862 a.d.) a Norman dynasty, 
The Ruriks, succeeded in uniting the Russo- 
Slavonians. Drawn together by the firm 
grasp of a succession of able alien rulers, and 
since 988 compactly united by the kindly in- 
fluence of the Eastern Church, they rapidly 
expanded. Kief, ^' fit mother' of Russian cities,'' 
became the centre of the nascent monarchy, 
which, about 1000 a.d., stretched from the 
Gulf of Finland to the Carpathians, and from 
the confines of Poland and Lithuania to close 
upon the confluence of the Oka and the Volga. 

But after 1054 every descendant of Rurik 
claimed a separate principality, and considered 
himself independent of all the other princes 
except the eldest, to whom a mostly nominal 
obedience was shown {the appanage system). 
The eldest prince of the race of Rurik resided 
originally at Kief, had the title of Grand 
Prince, and was the presiding officer among 
the Russian princes. Kief maintained long its 
high position. But at length its power be- 
gan to decline, and after being sacked, first by 
Russian (1169) and then by Tatar hands (1240), 
it at last passed into the power of the Lithuan- 
ian princes. Next in order was the principal- 
ity of SouzDAL. For a long time (i 169-1300) 
the Grand-Princeship remained associated 
wdth its capital, the city of Vladimir, as it had 
formerly been with the city of Kief. Then 
(since 1328) Moscow became the centre of the 
Russias. The results of this appanage system 
were the breaking up of the unity of the mon- 
archy, and continual civil wars, which natu- 
rally invited the attacksof theirwarlike neigh- 
bors. 

During the tenth, and the first half of the 
eleventh century the land groaned under the 
blows inflicted by the Petchenegians. They 
were succeeded by the Polovtsi, and before 
those invaders had long been rendered harm- 
less the civilization of the country seemed for 
a time to be on the point of disappearing un- 
der the terrible pressure of the Mongols. 

The Mongol Invasions. — In 1224 the 
chieftains of the Polovtsi sent messengers to 
MiSTiSLAV, the Prince of Gallicia, to inform him 
that their country had been invaded by the 
Mongols. ^''To-day,'' they said, "//;^j^ //<7Z'<? seized 
our country, and to-morroiv they will seize yours if 
you do not help us.'' Mistislav, perceiving the 
force of the argument about his own turn coming 
next, thought it wise to assist his old enemies. 
On the Kalka, a small river falling into the 
sea of Azov, the Russian army met the in- 
vaders, but was completely routed. The vic- 



tors, however, after advancing as far as the 
Dnieper, suddenly wheeled round and disap- 
peared. Thirteen years afterward (1237) they 
returned under Batu, grandson of Jenghis 
Khan. The Russian princes made hardly any 
attempt to combine against the common 
enemy. Nearly all the principal towns were 
laid in ashes, and the inhabitants were killed or 
carried off as slaves. When the Russian 
princes arrived as fugitives in Poland and 
Hungary, Europe was terror-stricken. Pope 
Gregory IX. summoned Christendom to arms. 
Louis IX. prepared for a crusade. Frederick 
II., as emperor, wrote to the sovereigns of the 
West: *'This is the moment to open the 
eyes of body and soul, now that the brave 
princes on whom we reckoned are dead or in 
slavery." The Mongols invaded Hungary, 
gave battle to the Poles near Liegnitz (Wahl- 
statt), in Silesia (1241), had their progress a 
long while arrested by the courageous defence 
of Olmiitz, in Moravia, and stopped finally, 
learning that a large army, commanded by 
the King of Bohemia and the dukes of Austria 
and Carinthia, was approaching. The news 
of the death of Octa'i, second emperor of all 
the Mongols, in China, recalled Batu from 
the West. On his return to the Volga, Batu 
built on one of the arms of the Lower Volga a 
city called Sarai {the Castle), which became 
the capital of a powerful Mongol empire, the 
Golden Horde extending from the Ural and 
Caspian to the mouth of the Danube. United 
and powerful under the terrible Batu, who 
died in 1255, it fell to pieces under his suc- 
cessors ; but in the fourteenth century the 
Khan Uzbeck reunited it anew, and gave the 
horde a second period of prosperity. The 
Mongols, who were pagans when they entered 
Russia, embraced, about 1272, the faith of 
Islam, and became its most formidable apos- 
tles. 

The Black Death.— In the \vake of the 
Mongolian invasions came the most terrible 
plague the world has ever witnessed, which 
swept over Asia, Northern Africa, and Europe. 
It was first seen in Western Europe, in Provence, 
on All Saints' Day, 1347. In sixteen months it 
carried off two-thirds of the inhabitants. The 
same wholesale destruction befell Languedoc. 
At Narbonne 30,000 persons perished. 

It reached the North of France in August, 
1348. In Paris it carried off 800 persons 
daily. In Strasburg 16,000 perished. The 
prologue to Boccaccio's "Decameron" is the 
principal historic evidence we possess of its 
ravages in Italy. He asserts that at Florence 
alone 100,000 perished. After devastating Eu- 
rope from the shores of the Mediterranean 
to the Baltic it swooped, at the close of 1348, 



86 



ENGLISH CONQUEST OF SCOTLAND. 



upon Britain. Of the 4,000,000 who then 
formed the population of England, more than 
one-half were swept away in its repeated vis 
itations. 

ENGLAND AND FRANCE DURING THE 
ERA OF THE FIRST MONGOLIAN IN- 
VASION. 

Edward I. and Wales. — Edward I. (1272- 
1307) was the first national king with purely 
national aims. He undertook to unite the 
whole island under his sceptre. In Wales, 
the conquest of which had been so often at- 
tempted and so often failed, there lived at 
this time Prince Llewellyn, whose personal 
beauty, cunning, and high spirit fitted him to 
be a brilliant representative of the old British 
nationality. The bards, reviving the old proph- 
esies, promised him the ancient crown of Bru- 
tus, but when he ventured out of the moun- 
tains he was overpowered and fell, on the 
Wye, in a hand-to-hand conflict. The Eng-> 
lish crown was not to fall to Llewellyn's lot, 
but Edward transferred the title of Prince of 
Wales to his own son. The great cross of the 
Welsh, the crown of Arthur, fell into his 
hands ; he no longer tolerated the bards ; their 
age passed away with the Crusades. 

Edward I. and Scotland. — From Wales 
Edward turned his arms against Scotland. 
There Columban had in former days (about 
600 A.D.) anointed as king a Scottish prince, 
who was also of Celtic descent. How the 
German element, nevertheless, got the upper 
hand, not merely in the greatest part of the 
country, but also in the ruling family, is the 
great problem of early Scottish history. A 
thoroughly Germanic monarchy had arisen 
which ruled over an aggregate of four races : 
the English (between Forth and Tweed)^ the 
Welsh (between Solway and Clyde), the Picts 
(north of the Forth and Clyde), and the Irish 
tribe of the Scots (in Southwestern Argyle). 
After it had once given a home to English and 
Saxons, who fled before the Normans, it thought 
its honor concerned in repelling all English in- 
fluences. A disputed succession gave Edward 
I. an opportunity of reviving the claims of his 
predecessors to the .overlordship of Scotland. 

After the death of Alexander HL the Scot- 
tish crown passed to his grand-daughter, Mar- 
garet, the Maid of Norway, to whom Edward 
had betrothed his son ; but she died on the 
voyage from Norway (1290), and tliirteen claim- 
ants for the crown appeared. The five prin- 
cipal ones were John Baliol, The Red Comyn, 
The Bruce, John Hastings, and Floris V. The 
Scottish States, being unable to decide between 
them, made Edward I. an umpire. He de- 
cided for John Baliol, as the descendant of 



the eldest grand-daughter of David of Hunt- 
ingdon (1292), stipulating, however, that the 
suzerainty should rest with himself. 

In 1293 hostilities between French and Eng- 
lish mariners resulted in a naval battle, in which 
15,000 Normans were said to have perished. 
Philip IV., King of France, summoned Edw^ard 
to appear before him in Paris to answer, as 
Duke of Guienne, for the wrong said to have 
been perpetrated by Edward's subjects on the 
subjects of his suzerain. At the same time 
the French king entered into a treaty with the 
King of Scotland, that so Edward, if not sub- 
missive to the call made upon him, might 
have a war upon his hands in both countries. 
When, therefore, Edward called upon Baliol 
to aid him against France, the latter renounced 
his allegiance, and declared war. 

The English Conquest of Scotland.— 
When Edward heard of Baliol's rebellion, he 
marched at once to Scotland. Baliol was con- 
quered at Dunbar (1297) and made a prisoner. 
The Scottish strongholds fell into the hands 
of the English. The country appeared to be 
subjugated, but the Scots were ill-treated by 
the English. A revolt against English rule 
broke out in a most formidable manner. Will- 
iam Wallace came down from the hill coun- 
try, at the head of the fugitives and exiles, a 
robber-patriot of gigantic bodily strength and 
innate talent for war. His successes soon 
increased his band to the size of an army. 
He beat the English in the pitched battle of 
Stirling (1297) and then swept over the bor- 
ders into the English territory. A truce with 
France enabled Edward in 1298 to invade 
Scotland in person. He marched into the 
country at the head of the largest army he 
had ever gathered, and in the battle of Falkirk 
inflicted a terrible defeat on the Scottish 
forces. Wallace escaped from the field, but 
only to fall through treachery into English 
hands and be condemned to death as a traitor. 
Edward now united Scotland with England 
and directed that Scottish representatives 
should take part in the English parliament. 
In the midst of this struggle with Scotland 
tlie English parliament had become what it 
has ever since been. In 1295 the first com- 
plete parliament met. Finding that if he was 
to expect money from parliament, for his wars, 
he must promise never to take money without 
the consent of parliament, Edward I. in 1297 
swore to articles known as the Confirmation of 
the Charters in which he promised to levy no 
more money v>^ithout a grant from parliament. 
Nevertheless, Scotland would have nothing to 
do with Edward's government, however good 
it might be. After the execution of Wallace 
the struggle for Scottish independence was 



87 



EDWAKD II. 



taken up by Robert Bruce, grandson of the 
Bruce who had claimed the crown. His plan 
to gain the crown was disclosed by John Comyn 
(known as the ^d'^/ C^'///;'//) nephew of Baliol. 
This Comyn young Bruce stabbed in a church 
at Dumfries. He was then crowned king at 
Scone (1306) and summoned the Scots to his 
standard. The English king sent his son Ed- 
ward with the vanguard, but the king himself, 
before he could reach Scotland, died (1307). 

Edward II. — (1307-1327). — Notwithstand- 
ing he had promised his dying father that he 
would push on the war against the Scots, Ed- 
ward II. abandoned the enterprise and turned 
back into England. Under him the old ambi- 
tion of the barons. to take a preponderant part 
in the government reappeared once more with 
the greatest violence. The occasion was af- 
forded by the weakness of the sovereign, w^ho 
allowed his favorite, the Gascon Gaveston, a 
disastrous influence on affairs. Discontented 
with this, the king's nearest cousin, Thomas of 
Lancaster, placed himself at the head of the 
great nobles, and in the fourth year of his 
government Edward was obliged to accept all 
the regulations made by a committee of the 
nobles called the Oniainers (13 10). 

Without advice of the nobles he was forbid- 
den either to begin a war or to fill up high of- 
fices of state or even to leave the country. 
Gaveston had to pay for his short possession 
of influence by death without mercy (1312). 

It was long before the king found men who 
had the courage to defend the lawful authority 
of the crown. At last the two Hugh Despen- 
cers undertook it. Under their leadership, 
the barons were defeated, and Thomas of Lan- 
caster in his turn paid for his enterprises with 
his life (1322). The regulations of the Or- 
dainers were now revoked, and even the form, 
under cover of which they had been ratified, 
was declared invalid for all times. It was de- 
clared that all matters be established in parlia- 
ment by the King with the consent not only of 
the barons, but also of the universality of the 
realm. 

Independence of Scotland. — Bruce, tak- 
ing advantage of Edward's troubles, aroused 
the Scots to drive the English from their land. 
But for several years his cause seemed desper- 
ate, Bruce and his companions passing their 
lives as outlaws among the rocky fastnesses 
of the country. But gradually by stratagem, 
surprise, and desperate fighting, the English 
soldiers were crowded out of city after city, and 
fortress after fortress until almost all Scotland 
was in the hands of Bruce, who was now for- 
mally accepted by the people as their true and 
lawful sovereign. When, finally, Stirling the 
last place of importance still held by English 



troops, was besieged, Edward bestirred him, 
self (13 14). He set out for Scotland with an 
army of nearly one hundred thousand men. 
A great battle took place at Bannockburn 
near Stirling, where Bruce, with a greatly in- 
ferior force of foot-soldiers, totally defeated 
the English. The independence of Scotland 
really dates from the victory of Bannockburn, 
but the English were too proud to acknowl- 
edge it until fourteen years more of war. Fi- 
nally in 1328, Edward HI. gave up all claim to 
Scotland, which now, with Robert Bruce as 
its king, took its place among the nations of 
Europe. 

Catastrophe of Edward II. — Guiennc and 
Poitou were the only parts of France still in 
possession of the English. During the greater 
part of the reign of Edward II. there were 
no differences between France and England. 
But in 1324 Edward was summoned in peremp- 
tory terms to do homage to Charles IV. for 
his French possessions. To evade this demand 
the king first sent ambassadors, then his queen, 
and, lastly, he resigned the two provinces into 
the hand of his son. But his ease and self- 
indulgence were not secured by these means. 
His queen, Isabella, who had joined his en- 
emies, returned in 1325 from France with Ed- 
ward, Prince of Wales, and at the head of 
exiles and foreign soldiers. The barons joined 
her. The Despencers were taken and ex- 
ecuted. The king was driven to resign the 
crown. He was carried from one castle to an- 
other and finally was secretly murdered at 
Berkeley Castle, by Roger Mortimer, in whose 
custody he had been placed (1327). 

The French Succession in 1327. — None 
of the three sons of Philip IV. left a male 
heir. When the last one, Charles IV., died 
in 1327, the question arose whether the crown 
could descend to females, each of the sons 
having left daughters. It was decided that, 
according to the old Salic law of the Franks, 
the kingdom could not ^^fall to the distaff^ 
During the short reign of Philip's sons, their 
uncle, Charles, Count of Valois, secured 
almost royal power, and his son obtained in 
1328 the crown, which thus went to the Valois 
branch of the Capets. This new king, Philip 
VI., summoned Edward III. to appear in the 
French court and do homage for the duchy of 
Guienne. Edward had more than one reason 
for looking with distaste on this summons. 
His mother, Isabella, was daughter of Philip 
IV., of France. The Salic law, which in 
France precluded his mother from the throne 
on account of her sex, did not, he maintained 
preclude himself, as her male offspring. It 
was only by repudiating this doctrine, and ex- 
tending the disability, not only to females in 



FIRST ENGLISH INVASION OF FRANCE. 



the direct line, but to their descendants, that 
Philip of Valois had become king. ' Edward, 
however, deemed it prudent for the present to 
comply with the demand of Philip ; but first 
declared to his council, that what he was 
about to do, would be done under constraint, 
and should not deter him from asserting his 
right to the crowm of France on a future day. 
Besides there were other causes of strife. The 
French coveted Flanders and the English 
would not allow this province, the best customer 
for their wool, to pass under French control. 
Finally, France and Scotland were always 
leagued, either secretly or openly, against 
England. It was in their power to create di- 
versions in favor of each other, and so to 
weaken the common enemy. But these double 
tactics only seemed to give a double intensity 
to the antagonism of the English. The ene- 
mies of England, to whom Scotland was not a 
place of safety, found a ready asylum in 
France. In 1337 it was no secret that Philip 
had purposed sending considerable succors 
to the party of David Bruce in Scotland. It is 
at this juncture that Edward decides on invad- 
ing France. 

The First English Invasion of France. 
— In 1337 Edward entered France, and then, 
for the first time, publicly set up his claim to 
be King of France, quartering the lilies on his 
shield ; and he was accepted by the Flemish 
as their suzerain. The first battle was on the 
sea near Sluys (1340), where Edward won a 
victory which gave him the command of the 
English channel. In 1341, during a disputed 
succession in Brittany, the greater part of the 
Bretons also hailed Edward as their suzerain. 

In 1344 the peers, each in his own name, 
called on the king to cross the sea, and not let 
himself be hindered by anyone from appealing 
to the judgment of God by battle ; they prom- 
ising to follow him in person with their squires 
and horsemen. 

So that splendid army made its appearance 
in France (1346), in which the weapons of the 
yeomen vied with those of the knights, and 
which, thanks to the former, won the victory 
of Crecy (August 26, 1346). While the king 
made conquests over the French, his heroic 
queen repelled the Scotch (at Neville's Cross, 
October 17, 1346). In these wars, the now 
united nation, which put forth all its strength, 
came for the first time to the feeling of its 
power, to a position of its own in the world, 
and to the consciousness of it. The King of 
Scotland at that time, and the King of France 
some years later (King John, made prisoner in 
the battle of Poitiers in 1356), became prison- 
ers in England. A period followed in which 
England seemed to have obtained the suprem- 



acy of Western Europe. The Scots pur. 
chased their king's freedom by a truce which 
bound them to long and heavy payments, for 
which hostages Avere given as a security. By 
the treaty of Bretigny (May, 1360), Guienne, 
Gascony, Poitou, and such important towns 
as Rochelle and Calais were surrendered to 
Edward, who was to be independent sovereign 
of Aquitaine and Ponthieu. The Prince of 
Wales {The Black Prince), who took up his 
residence at Bordeaux, mixed in the Spanish 
quarrels with the view of uniting Biscay to 
his Aquitanian realm. As the result of these 
circumstances and of the well-calculated en- 
couragement of Edward III., we find that 
English commerce prospered immensely, and, 
in emulous alliance with that of Flanders, be- 
gan to form another great centre for the gen- 
eral commerce of the world. 

England Loses Southern France. — 
England did not long maintain herself in the 
dominant position she occupied in 1360 ; the 
' plan of extending her rule into Spain proved 
I ruinous for the Black Prince. Not merely 
was his protege (Peter the Cruel of Castile) 
overpowered by the French free compatiies 
under Bertrand du Guesclin, but a Castilian 
war fleet succeeded in destroying the English 
one in sight of the harbor of Ta Rochelle 
(1372). On this their natural, inclination to- 
ward the King of France awoke in the nobles 
and towns of Southern France. Without 
great battles, merely by the revolt of vassals 
tired of his rule, Edward III. again lost 
nearly all the territories conquered with such 
great glory (see Plate XXXVI.). Then a gloom 
settled down around the aged conqueror. He 
saw his eldest son, who, though obliged to 
quit France, in England enjoyed the fullest 
confidence and had every prospect of a great 
future, sicken and die (1376). And he too ex- 
perienced what befalls so many others, that 
misfortune abroad raised him up opponents 
at home. In the increasing weakness of old 
age he could not maintain the independence 
of the royal power, with the re-establishment 
of which he had begun his reign. He was 
still able to effect this much, that the succes- 
sion to the kingdom came to the son of the 
Black Prince. 

Richard II. — Only ten years old at his 
grandfather's death, England was ruled by the 
boy-king's uncles, and chiefly by John of Gaunt. 
The country felt the weakness of the govern- 
ment in a general disorder. Still the war with 
France called for money ; and the parliament 
was driven to raise this money by a tax, not 
as of old on lands, but on every man and 
woman personally '' by head " {poll\ which was 
hence called a poll-tax. This was levied from 



1215—1360 A. D. 



Plate XXXV. 




HABSBURG AND LUXEMBURG. 



people who had till now been free from tax- 
ation, and who were just awaking to the in- 
justice of their state as j-(?r/"or bondsman, bound 
to do service in labor on their lord's lands. A 
preacher, named John Ball, fanned the discon- 
tent into a temper of rebellion ; and in 1381 
the commons rose in the Peasant Revolt. A 
large body of them, with Wat the Tyler at their 
head, at last reached London. Young Rich- 
ard was only sixteen, but he rode boldly out to 
meet them. He managed them with so much 
tact and gave them such fair promises that 
they dispersed. Riots, however, and disturb- 
ances spread through the country. The pea- 
sants were attacked and slauo;htered in thou- 
sands. The king was not allowed to fulfil his 
promises even if he had wished to do so. 

Under the pretext that he had become the 
slave of unworthy favorites, he was (1386) de- 
prived of almost all his authority by his uncle, 
the Duke of Gloucester, and a commission of 
regency. He was not, however, disposed to 
bear this yoke forever. He first freed him- 
self from the war wnth France by a truce for 
twenty-five years (1396), followed by his mar- 
riage with Isabella, daughter of Charles V. 
At home, too, he gained himself friends. When 
all was prepared he struck a sudden blow 
(July, 1397), which no one would have expected 
from him. He removed his leading opponents 
(above all, his uncle Gloucester, and Arundel, 
Archbishop of Canterbury) — banished them or 
threw them into prison. Then he succeeded 
in getting together a parliament in which his 
partisans had the upper hand, whicli, by making 
him a very considerable grant for his life-time, 
freed him from the necessity of summoning it 
anew. Richard's success was only momentary. 
His absolute rule was not free from arbitrary 
acts. Among the great nobles each trembled 
for his own safety ; the clergy were impatient 
of being deprived of their primate. It needed 
only the return of an exile, the young Henry 
of Lancaster, whom the king would not allow 
to take possession of his inheritance by dep- 
uty, and who broke his ban to do himself 
right. He landed in 1399, with a few men-at- 
arms and with Archbishop Arundel, and being 
joined by the great family of the Percies he 
obliged Richard to resign the crown. 

He was deposed by parliament for misgov- 
ernment. Not long after he was murdered at 
Pomfret Castle, February 7, 1400. Lancaster 
was made king under the name of Henry IV. 
(1399-1413). 

Thus parliament raised a prince to tlie 
throne who had openly opposed the legal king 
in the field, and was not even the next in suc- 
cession ; for there were still the descendants 
of an elder brother left, who, according to 



English usage, had a prior right. The parlia- 
ment held itself competent to settle, on its own 
authority, even the succession to the crown. 
It enacted that it should belong to the king's 
eldest son, and after him to his male issue. 
The proposal formally to exclude succession 
in the female line did not pass, but for a long 
while to come the actual practice had that ef- 
fect. 



GERMANY AND ITALY DURING THE ERA 
OF THE FIRST MONGOLIAN INVASION. 

The Beginnings of the Habsburgs. — 

After the fall of the Hohenstaufen, the empire 
had for nearly twenty years no recognized 
head. Often, during these dark days, did the 
common people think of Barbarossa, and sigh 
for the time when he should awake from his 
long sleep and bring back quiet and safety. 
At last even the selfish barons became con- 
vinced that Germany could not do without a 
government. The leading princes (the three 
Archbishops of Mayence, Cologne, and Treves) 
conferred, in 1273, the crown on Rudolf of 
Habsburg. Ottocar, King of Bohemia, refused 
to do homage to him. He was put under the 
ban of the empire, and his fiefs proclaimed 
forfeited. Conquered in battle (Marchfield, 
1278), he was forced to yield to the conqueror 
Austria^ Styria^ Carinthia^ and Carniola. Ru- 
dolf bestowed them, in 1282, in fief on his two 
sons, Albert and Rudolf, and on his brother- 
in-law, Meinhard of Tyrol (Carinthia). Thus 
was founded the future greatness of the house 
of Habsburg. Albert alone survived his fa- 
ther, and in conjunction with his nephew 
John inherited all the Habsburg possessions. 
Rudolf had in vain endeavored to procure the 
German crown for his son, who was, however, 
elected on the deposition of Adolf of Nassau, 
in 1298, and assumed the title of Albert I. 
He was assassinated in 1308 by his nephew 
John. 

The House of Luxemburg. — Through the 
influence of the Archbishop of Treves, the 
princes elected as King of the Romans his 
brother Henry, Count of Luxemburg. This 
is Emperor Henry VII., celebrated by the con- 
temporary Italian poet, Dante. Although a 
prince of small possessions, he strove to live 
up to his title. The marriage of his son John 
with Ottocar's granddaughter Elizabeth, heir- 
ess of Bohemia, founded the greatness of the 
house of Luxemburg. 

The aim of Henry was to restore the great- 
ness of the Holy Roman Empire. Crossing 
from his Burgundian dominions with a scanty 
following of knights, and descending from 
Mont. C'enis upon Turin he found his pre- 



90 



LOUIS— CHARLES IV. — SIGISMUND. 



rogative higher in men's belief after sixty 
years of neglect than it had stood under the 
last Hohenstaufen, The cities of Lombardy 
opened their gates ; Milan decreed a vast sub- 
sidy. Guelph and Ghibelline exiles alike were 
restored, and imperial vicars appointed every- 
where. There w^as no pope in Rome to thwart 
the imperial plans ; for, after the short pon- 
tificate of Benedict XI., a French prelate, the 
Archbishop of Bordeaux was made pope under 
the name of Clement V. He was crowned at 
Lyons in 1305, and in 1309 had established 
himself at Avignon, a possession of the Holy 
See on the borders of France. (Seven suc- 
cessors of Clement V. resided at Avignon. In 
1376 the pope returned to Rome.) This 
Clement V., dreading the restless ambition of 
the French king, supported Henry in every- 
thing, who therefore had the interdict of the 
church as well as the ban of the empire at his 
command. 

But the illusion of success vanished as soon 
as men began to be again governed by their 
ordinary passions and interests, and not by an 
imaginative reverence for the glories of the 
past. Tumults and revolts broke out in Lom- 
bardy ; at Rome the King of Naples held St. 
Peter's, and the coronation must take place in 
the Church of the Lateran (13 12). The hos- 
tility of the Guelphic league, headed by the 
Florentines, obliged Henry to depart from his 
impartial policy and to purchase the aid of the 
Ghibelline chiefs by granting them the gov- 
ernment of cities. With few troops, and en- 
compassed by enemies, the heroic emperor 
sustained an unequal struggle for a year 
longer, till, in 13 13, he sunk beneath the fevers 
of the deadly Tuscan summer. 

Louis the Bavarian. — The empire on 
Henry VII. 's death, in 1313, was bestowed on 
Louis the Bavarian (13 14-1347). Albert I.'sson 
Frederick was elected as a rival to Louis the 
Bavarian, but was overthrown at the battle 
of Ampfing, near Muhldorf, in 1322 ; and from 
this period till the election of Albert II., in 
1438, the Habsburg princes remained ex- 
cluded from the German throne, and were 
chiefly occupied with the affairs of their Aus- 
trian dominions. Louis the Bavarian was not 
able to leave the empire to his son. The vio- 
lent means adopted by him to increase his 
domestic power led (1346), a year before his 
death, to the election of Charles, son of that 
John of Bohemia who fell, in 1346, at Crecy. 

Emperor Charles IV. — The second em- 
peror of the house of Luxemburg, Charles IV. 
(1347-1378), had nothing knightly in his char- 
acter, but was wise in statecraft and shrewd 
in calculation. Under his direction was drawn 
up (1356) the famous Golden £ull, so called 



from the golden seal (with the legend, Rof?ia 
caput mundi regit orbis frena rotundi) affixed to 
it. This famous instrument, which became 
the corner-stone of the German constitution, 
confessed and legalized the independence of 
the electors and the powerlessness of the 
crown. Frankford was fixed as the place of 
election. The Archbishop of Mayence, Arch- 
chancellor of Germany, was convener of the 
electoral college ; the six other electors were : 
the Archbishop of Cologne, Archchancellor of 
Italy ; the Archbishop of Treves, Arch-chan- 
cellor of the kingdom of Aries ; the King of 
Bohemia, Archseneschal ; the Count Palatine, 
Archsteward ; the Duke of Saxony, Arch- 
marshal ; the Margrave of Brandenburg, Arch- 
chamberlain. The electoral vote went with 
the land. In 1373 Emperor Charles IV. 
bought, for about $150,000 (only half of it ever 
paid), from Otto, third son of Louis the Bava- 
rian, the electorate and mark of Branden- 
burg. 

To Germany he was indirectly a benefactor 
by the foundation (1348) of a university, after 
the pattern of that in Paris, at Prague. It 
was the first university in Germany — the 
mother of all her schools. 

On his death-bed he divided his lands 
among his three sons. Wenceslaus, the eldest, 
who had already been elected to the German 
throne, received the cradle of the race, Liixem- 
burg, with Bohemia and Silesia; Sigismund, 
Brandenburg ; John, Lusatia. 

Emperor Sigismund. — Wenzel was de- 
posed as emperor in 1400. He died childless 
(1419), as king of Bohemia. Rupert, the Count 
Palatine, wore the imperial crown from 1400 
to 1410, when Sigismund was elected emperor, 
who, in right of his wife, Maria, daughter of 
Louis the Great, was king of Hungary. Since 
his brother Wenceslaus' death, in 1419, he 
had united under his sceptre Bohemia and 
Hungary. He had, however, before this, 
parted with his original domain ; for at Con- 
stance, in 1415, Sigismund had invested Fred- 
erick of Hohenzollern burggrave of Nurem- 
burg, with the mark of Brandenburg, the 
electoral vote, and the office of archcham- 
berlain, as a reward for the important services 
he had done him and the empire. In reality 
he had mortgaged the mark for a $1,000,000, 
which he found very inconvenient to pay back. 
His father had actually paid for it $75,000. 
Sigismund sold it, forty-two years later, for 
$1,000,000. The new elector vigorously en- 
tered his possession, battering down with gun- 
powder " the castle walls, fourteen feet thick," 
of the robber-knights, and restored order and 
quiet. His descendants to-day occupy the 
Prussian throne. 



91 



THE BULGARIA:NS and SERVIANS. 



EASTERN EUROPE UNTIL 1356. 

The Original Races of the Balkan Pe- 
ninsula. — When the Romans conquered the 
Balkan Peninsula they found there three great 
races — the Greek, the Illyrian, and the Thra- 
cian. Those three races are all there still. 
The Greeks never spread over the Balkan 
Peninsula and peopled it, but were rather at- 
tracted to the points which offered the greatest 
facilities for commerce. During the Roman 
dominion they gradually took the Roman 
name, but they kept their own language, lit- 
erature, and civilization. The common term 
for a Greek in Turkey is still Roum, i.e., Ro- 
man. The ancient lUyrians are represented 
by the modern Albanians, and the Thracians 
by the modern Romanians — also called Walla- 
chians, or Conciari, and they are of the same 
race as their namesakes in Wallacliia and Mol- 
davia. To those three old races was added, 
during the period of the great migrations, a 
fourth, the Slavonians. They came into the 
Balkan Peninsula in all manner of characters — 
as captives, as mercenaries, as allies, and at 
last as conquerors. From the seventh century 
A.D., we must count the Slavonic people and 
the Slavonic language as one great element, 
in number, perhaps, the greatest element, on 
the Balkan Peninsula. The older Slavonic 
immigrants are represented by the Bulgarians, 
the later Slavonic immigration by the Ser- 
vians. 

The Bulgarians. — One of the oldest Sla- 
vonic migrations settled, about 450 a.d., in 
depopulated Moesia, the tract between the 
Danube and the Balkan. They called them- 
selves Slovieni, and their country Slovienia. 
In 679 they were conquered by the small but 
warlike Finnic tribe of the Bulgarians. The 
conquerors, however, were soon assimilated by 
their Slavonic subjects, who surpassed them far 
in numbers. They gradually adopted the Sla- 
vonic speech, and lost all traces of their non- 
Slavonic origin. Though often at war with the 
Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians profited by 
its neighborhood so far as to imbibe a con- 
siderable amount of civilization. In the ninth 
century they fought covered with steel armor ; 
their discipline astonished the veterans of the 
empire, and they possessed all the military en- 
gines then known. They were converted to 
Christianity about 860 by Cyrillus and Metho- 
dius, the celebrated Slavonian apostles, who in- 
troduced letters among them. They invented 
an alphabet principally formed from the 
Greek capitals, and gave to each letter the 
name of a word beginning with it. With these 
characters, usually termed Cyrillian, was made 
a Slavonic version of the Scriptures and a na- 



tional liturgy. Thus Slavonian literature first 
flourished among the Bulgarians. The great 
Bulgarian Tsar Simeon (893-927) was not 
only a great warrior who made himself formid- 
able to the Byzantines, but he bestowed, also, 
his patronage on the early efforts of native 
literature. After his death decay began, and 
in 10 19 the Bulgarians were forced to ac- 
knowledge the supremacy of Byzantium. 
More than a century and a half later (1218) 
two brothers, Peter and Asen, founded the 
second Bulgarian kingdom, which, under Tsar 
Joannes Asen II., reached from the Danube to 
the ^gaean. About 1550 it lost the Mace- 
donian provinces, but was able to maintain 
its independence against Byzantium. Plate 
XXXVI. shows the extent of the Bulgarian 
kingdom about the middle of the fourteenth 
century. 

The Servians. — In the beginning of the 
seventh century a.d., the northern provinces 
of the Byzantine Empire were overrun by the 
Tatar tribe of the Avars. To root out this 
swarm and repeople the land, the Emperor 
Heraclius invited into his dominions certain 
Slavonic tribes, who, having left their original 
seats, were hovering on the north bank of the 
Danube. The land whence these tribes came 
lay on the northern slope of the Carpathians. 
Its name was Servia, or Serbia ; Serb (nation) 
being the domestic appellation by which the 
Slavonians originally designated themselves. 
They settled west of the Bulgarians, from the 
Danube to the Adriatic. They were a warlike 
tribe, who crossed the Danube as an organized 
community commanded by princes. They 
acknowledged sometimes the Byzantine em- 
peror, sometimes the Bulgarian tsar, but they 
were never governed except by their own 
chiefs. In the middle of the ninth century 
they had become converts to the Eastern 
Church. The real history of Servia, which 
begins in the middle of the twelth century, 
consists of three periods — graiiith,glory, and/^//, 
each having its representative man. 

The first of these is Stephen Nemania, who 
(i 162) welded several detached and vassal gov- 
ernments into an independent monarchy. 

The second is Tsar Stephen Dushan, who 
(1340) raised the monarchy into an ernpire, and 
aimed to defend the whole peninsula against 
the Turks. 

The Empire of Constantinople, consisting of 
three detached pieces, Peloponnesus, Chal- 
cidice, and Roumelia (see Plate XXXVI. ), was 
barely able to hold its own. The Venetians 
(their possessions are colored green) cared only 
for their commercial interests. Bulgaria was 
weakened by internal factions. Under these 
circumstances Stephen Dushan thought it his 



92 



1356—1415 A. D. 



Plate XXXVI. 




EASTERN Europe! 

IN Al 

1356 A. D. 



Strutheiii, Servoss i Co., Engr's and Ti-'f :J.Y. 



EISE OF THE OSMANLI EMPIRE. 



duty to unite the whole of the Balkan Penin- 
sula against the Turks, by absorbing the 
weaker powers. He assumed the title of 
Christ-loving Tsar of ail Serbs and Greeks, and 
prepared to take Constantinople. But he 
died of fever on the march to Constantinople 
(1355). His death sealed the fate of the Bal- 
kan Peninsula. 

THE RISE OF THE OSMANLI EMPIRE. 

Origin of the Turks. — The original home 
of the Turks was on the slope of the Altai 
Mountains, from whence they descended into 
the steppes to the east of Lake Aral. After 
them this tract was called Turkestan, or Turan. 
About 1000 A.D., Seljuk led several tribes out 
of Turkestan into Bokhara. They were called, 
after him, Seljukian Turks, or Seljuks. They 
.embraced the Islam, and played an important 
part in the continual feuds between the Mo- 
hammedan empires in Asia. After Seljuk's 
death, his third son, Arslan, crossed the Oxus 
and settled in Chorassan, from whence he ex- 
tended his power in all directions (1039). 
Togrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, became the 
founder of a large empire, which, under his 
grandson, Malek-shah, extended from the 
Chinese frontier to the ^gsean Sea. It lasted 
till 1092, when it was split into five smaller 
states, of which the Sultanate of Iconium, in 
Asia Minor, was the most important. 

As ruling over a land conquered from the 
Roman Empire, they called themselves the 
Sultans of Roum {Rome). Their attacks on 
the Eastern empire caused the Christian na- 
tions of the West to come to the help of their 
brethren in the East. (See Crusades.) The 
power of Roum, weakened in the eleventh 
century by the Crusaders, was broken in the 
thirteenth century by the Mongols. 

Beginnings of the OsmanH Empire. — 
In one of the many battles between Turks 
and Mongols, the latter were conquered by 
the help of a wandering Turkish tribe, who, 
under their leader, Ertoghrul, w^ere seeking 
new settlements. They were rewarded with a 
grant of the rich plains of Saguta, along the 
left bank of the river Sakaria. (See Plate 
XLIV.) This district grew step by step into 
^he Osmanli empire, thus called after Osman, 
the son of Ertoghrul, who, in 1299, threw off 
his allegiance to the Sultan of Iconium. To 
the territories which Osman had won by arms 
a permanent organization was given under his 
son and successor, Orchan (1326-1360). 

Thus the house of Osman arose on the 
ruins of the house of Seljuk ; Broussa, at the 
foot of the Mysian Olympus, became its first 
capital. 



In the time of Orchan almost the whole of 
Asia Minor was already subjected to the Os- 
manli. A very small number of towns {Chal- 
kedon, Fhokaia, Philadelphia^ remained under 
the Empire of Constantinople, which acceler- 
ated its downfall by internal divisions, during 
which Thrace and Macedonia were nearly re- 
duced to a desert and became the prey of 
Servians and Turks whose assistance was 
sought by both parties. During these disturb- 
ances the Turks took Adrianople, which in 
magnitude was the third city in the Greek 
Empire and the key to Bulgaria and Servia. 

The Osmanli in Europe. — The conqueror 
Amurath I. made this his residence. 

This Amurath (1359-1380) formed a regular 
corps of 12,000 captive Christian youths, called 
Janissaries {Yeni Tscheri, i.e., New Troops), 
whose arms obtained, during 200 years, an 
almost uninterrupted succession of victories. 
He designed and trained them to the knowl- 
edge and love of no other employment but 
arms, and tauglit them to devote their whole 
life to his interests and to warfare. He be- 
stowed great rewards on them, distributed 
them in barracks, and forbade them to marry. 
No institution similar to this existed among 
the Europeans, and the irresistible progress of 
the Turks was the natural consequence of it. 
The consequence of the taking of Adrianople 
by the Osmanli was the formation of a league 
between the rulers of Hungary, Servia, and 
Bulgaria to drive the invaders out of Europe ; 
and their united forces marched toward Adri- 
anople, until they crossed the river Maritsa at 
a point not more than two days' journey from 
that city. Neglecting all military precautions, 
they were attacked in the night and fled in 
panic rout (1363). From this day the Turks 
took town after town from the Servians, until 
the capture of the strong city of Nissa (1376) 
forced the Servian sovereign to beg for peace, 
which was only granted to him on the condi- 
tion of supplying a tribute of a thousand 
pounds of silver and a thousand horse-soldiers 
every year. But Servia could not forget the 
proud position which she had held before the 
Osmanli had come into Europe. She formed 
a formidable league of the whole of Eastern 
Europe (except Russia, which still was in the 
power of the Mongols). The Bulgarians and 
Servians commenced the war by destroying a 
Turkish army of 20,000 men. But after this 
vigorous blow the Christians relaxed in their 
exertions, while Amurath sent an army across 
the Balkan which quickly conquered Bulga- 
ria (1389). The Servian Tsar Lazar, alarmed 
at the destruction of his confederate, now 
prepared for a resolute struggle. Amurath 
marched westward from Bulsfaria to meet him. 



93 



TIMOUKLENK. 



On the plain of Kossova the fate of Servia 
was decided on June 15 (St. Vitus' day), 1389. 
While the battle was still undecided, a Servian 
nobleman, Milosh Kabilovitsh, rode to the Ot- 
toman centre pretending to be a deserter. Led 
before the emir, he knelt as if in homage be- 
fore him, and then stabbed Amurath, who, dy- 
ing, gave orders for the last charge which de- 
cided the victory in his favor. Tsar Lazar was 
brought captive in his presence, and Amurath 
died in the act of pronouncing the death-doom 
of his foe. 

Sultan Bajazet (1389-1402).— His reign 
commenced in the camp, and he followed up 
the war against the Servians with vigor and 
success that showed him to be the heir of his 
father's valor as well as of his throne. They 
only obtained a seasonable relief from the 
pressure of his arms by the sudden attack 
which the Prince of Caramania made, in 1392, 
upon the possessions of the Osmanli in Asia. 
Caramania w^as conquered, and all the south 
of Asia Minor acknowledged Bajazet as sov- 
ereign. 

Bajazet was startled from his festivals in 
honor of the conquest of Asia Minor by a 
crusade of the Christian chivalry of the West 

(1396). 

Sigismund, the King of Hungary, felt deeply, 
after the day of Kossova, the imminence of 
the peril to which his own country was ex- 
posed ; and he succeeded in moving the sym- 
pathies of other members of the Latin Church 
into active enterprise in his behalf. Pope 
Boniface IX., in the year 1394, proclaimed a 
crusade against the Osmanli. About 12,000 
men, led by John the Fearless, son of the Duke 
of Burgundy, marched to Hungary, where 
they were joined by Sigismund, who had col- 
lected the full strength of his own kingdom. 
The first Turkish town attacked by the con- 
federates was Widdin, which surrendered im- 
mediately. After taking a few more unimpor- 
tant towns they laid siege to the important city 
of Nicopolis, which was stubbornly defended 
by Yoglan Bey. On September 24, 1396, the 
Christians were unexpectedly attacked by Ba- 
jazet. After a fierce battle the overthrow of 
the Christian army was complete. King Sigis- 
mund and a few leaders escaped with difficulty 
from the field ; but nearly all the best and 
bravest of the gallant army which had marched 
on that crusade lay stark on the bloody field of 
Nicopolis, or were helplessly waiting for the 
doom which it might please the triumphant 
sultan to pass upon his captive foes. Among 
the latter was a youth of Munich, named 
Schildberger, who escaped death in the con- 
flict and in the massacre that followed. He 
lived to witness and to share the captivity of 



his first captors ; and after thirty-four years of 
slavery returned to his home and wrote there 
a memoir of his own life, which is the most 
interesting and most trustworthy narrative 
that we possess of the campaign of Nicopolis 
and of many of the subsequent scenes of 
Turkish history. 

Nothing could surpass the arrogant confi- 
dence in the strength of his arms with which 
Bajazet was inspired by this victory over the 
chosen warriors of the Christian nations. It 
was his common boast that he would conquer 
Italy, and that his horse sliould eat his oats 
on the high altar of St. Peter's. His gen- 
erals overran and devastated Styria and the 
south of Hungary, and the sultan himself led 
the Turkish armies to the conquest of Greece, 
while his lieutenants passed across the Isth- 
mus of Corinth and subdued the whole of 
the Peloponnesus (Morea). Thirty thousand 
Greeks were removed thence by Bajazet's 
order and transported into Asia, and Tur- 
coman colonies were settled in their stead in 
these classic regions. 

Constantinople had more than once been 
menaced by Bajazet, and in 1400 he coolly 
commanded the Greek emperor to surrender 
his crown, threatening extermination to all 
the inhabitants of the city in case of refusal. 
He was preparing to execute these threats, 
when the desolater was laid desolate and the 
victor overthrown by the superior might of 
the Mongols. 

THE SECOND MONGOL INVASION OF ASIA. 

Timourlenk {Tamerlane). — In the midst 
of the ancient Sogdiana, in a beautiful and 
well-watered valley, stands Samarcand, the 
ancient seat of power and literature. The 
valley is overlooked by the mountains of Fer- 
ghana, which are rich in gold, silver, copper, 
and precious stones, and inhabited by an inde- 
pendent pastoral nation of the Turkish race. 
In the magnificent city of Kesch, not far from 
Samarcand, Timour was viceroy of many fer- 
tile and populous districts belonging to the 
Mongolic Khan of Tchagatai, who, like him- 
self, was descended from Jenghis Khan. 

Timour, who w^as a great warrior and an 
artful man, persuaded the khan to appoint 
him no7vian^ or prime minister. At the age of 
thirty-five he had fought his way to undisputed 
pre-eminence, and was proclaimed Khan of 
Tchagatai. He chose Samarcand as the cap- 
ital of his dominion, and openly announced 
that he would make that dominion comprise 
the whole habitable earth. It proved more 
than a boast ; for in the thirty-six years of 
his reign he raged over the world from the 



94 



THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 



great wall of China to the centre of Russia on 
the north, and the Mediterranean and the Nile 
were the western limits of his career, which 
was pressed eastward as far as the sources of 
the Ganges. 

His triumphs were owing not only to per- 
sonal valor and to high military genius, but to 
his eminent skill as a politician and a ruler. 
His code of laws, which he drew up for the 
regulation of his army and for the administra- 
tion of justice and the finances, shows keen 
observation and deep and sound reflection. 
From the reports of his emissaries, who were 
sent by him to travel in all directions, under 
various disguises, he knew the strength and 
the weakness of his enemies in each place and 
at each crisis. This information was carefully 
collected in registers and delineated on maps, 
which were kept ready for immediate reference. 

Fall of Bajazet. — During the three years 
that followed the battle of Nicopolis, Bajazet 
had extended the frontier of his empire to the 
easternmost parts of Asia Minor. 

Timour's dominions were already spread 
over many countries west of the Caspian Sea, 
so that a collision between them became in- 
evitable. Each sheltered the princes whom 
the other had dethroned, and a series of angry 
complaints and threats followed, which soon 
led to open insult and actual war. In 1400 
Timour assailed the strong city of Sivas. The 
tidings of its fall recalled Bajazet from the 
siege of Constantinople. Before he had 
reached Asia Minor, Timour had marched 
southward from Sivas, spreading devastation 
far and wide through the southern regions of 
Asia Minor, An insult from the Sultan of 
Egypt had drawn Timour's wrath in a south- 
ern direction, and Syria experienced for two 
years the terror of his arms. In the spring of 
1402 Timour marched again against the Os- 
manli, with 600,000 men. Bajazet advanced 
with hardly 120,000. On July 20, 1402, the 
decisive conflict took place on the plain of 
Angora. Bajazet lost his army and his liberty. 
He died a prisoner eight months after the bat- 
tle of Angora. Timour had sufficient magnan- 
imity to set at liberty Musa, Bajazet's son, and 
to permit him to take the dead body to Broussa 
for honorable interment in the burial-place of 
the Osmanli rulers. He himself did not long 
survive his fallen foe. He died at Otrar (Feb- 
ruary I, 1405) while on his march to conquer 
China. 

THE SECOND FOUNDATION OF THE EM- 
PIRE OF THE OSMANLL 

The Civil War. — The Empire of the Os- 
manli, which during the fourteenth century 
had acquired such dimensions and vigor, lay 



at the beginning of the fifteenth century in 
apparently irretrievable ruin. Besides the fa- 
tal day at Angora, when its veteran army was 
destroyed, calamity after calamity had poured 
fast upon the house of Osman. Their ancient 
rivals in Asia Minor, the Seljukian princes, 
were reinstated by Timour in their dominions. 
In Europe the Greek Empire accomplished an- 
other partial revival, and regained some of its 
lost provinces. But the heaviest and seeming- 
ly most fatal of afflictions was the civil war 
which broke out among the sons of Bajazet» 
and which threatened the utter disintegration 
and destruction of the relics of their ancestral 
dominions, Mahomet I. succeeded in 1413 in 
reuniting the empire, over which he ruled with 
wisdom and moderation for eight years (1413- 
142 1). This second founder of the Osmanli 
Empire was a liberal patron of intellectual 
merit, and his memory is still deservedly cher- 
ished and honored among his people. 

The Fall of Constantinople. — Amurath 
II. (1421-1451), the worthy son of Mahomet I., 
restored the Janissaries to their former fame ; 
he was heroic and at the same time gentle. In 
order to secure peace on his northwestern 
frontier he made a ten years' truce with the 
Hungarians at Szegedin (1444). The treaty 
was written both in the Hungarian and in the 
Turkish languages. King Ladislaus swore 
upon the Gospels, and the Sultan swore upon 
the Koran, that it should be truly and relig- 
iously observed. But Cardinal Julian, the pa- 
pal legate, released the Hungarians from their 
oath, and King Ladislaus suddenly marched 
to the shores of the Black Sea. Amurath 
hastened from Magnesia once more to vindi- 
cate the fame of the Osmanli arms. The bat- 
tle of Varna ensued, in which Amurath gained 
a great victory (November 10, 1444). His son^ 
Mahomet II. (1451-1481), inherited all his 
father's virtues except his moderation, and 
combined with them a more enterprising spi- 
rit. From the commencement of his reign the 
destruction of the miserable remnant of the 
Eastern Empire was his ruling passion, and in 
the 1123d year from the building of Constan- 
tinople (1453) he began the siege of that city 
with the utmost exertion of his powers. 

Severed already from Europe by schism, and 
by the Turkish conquests, this unhappy -city 
saw beneath her walls an army of 300,000 bar- 
barians. In May the city was taken. The 
last emperor, Constantine Palaeologus, died 
fighting for his empire. Europe was deeply 
moved ; Pope Nicholas V. preached the Cru- 
sade ; all the Italian states became reconciled 
at Lodi (1454). In other countries the cross 
was taken up by thousands. At Lille, the 
Duke of Burgundy presented, at a banquet, a 



95 



13th AND 14th CENTURIES 



Plate XXXVTI. 




EUSSIA UNDER THE TATAR YOKE. 



figure of the Church in tears, and swore that 
he would go and fight the infidels. But the 
enthusiasm lasted only a short time. Nine 
days after signing the Treaty of Lodi, the 
Venetians contracted another with the Turks. 
Charles VII. would not allow the Crusade to 
be preached in France ; the Duke of Burgun- 
dy stayed at home, and the new attempt of 
John of Calabria on the kingdom of Naples 
occupied the whole attention of Italy. 

Hunniades and Scanderbeg. — The only 
real champions of Christendom were the Hun- 
garian Hunniades and the Albanian Scander- 
beg. The latter had been seen, like Alexan- 
der, whose name the Turks bestowed on him, 
leaping alone upon the wall of a besieged 
city. Ten years after his death, the Turks 
divided his bones among themselves, believing 
that they would thus become invincible. The 
other soldier of Christy Hunniades, checked 
their advance, while Scanderbeg made his di- 
version in the rear. When the Osmanli at- 
tacked Belgrade, the bulwark of Hungary, 
Hunniades broke through the infidel army to 
throw himself into the town, repulsed during 
forty days its most vigorous assaults, and was 
celebrated as the Saviour of Christendom. 

Matthias Corvinus. — His son, Matthias 
Corvinus, whom the gratitude of the Hungar- 
ians raised to the throne, opposed his Black 
Guard, the first regular infantry this nation 
ever had, to the Janissaries of Mohammed II. 
Pope Pius II. and Venice allied themselves 
with this great prince, when their conquest of 
Servia and Bosnia opened for the Turks the 
road to Italy. The pope was the soul of the 
Crusade ; he appointed Ancona as the place 
of muster for all who would go with him to 
fight the enemies of the faith. But his strength 
was not sufficient. The aged pope expired on 
the shore in sight of the Venetian galleys 
which were to have carried him to Greece 
(1464). 

His successor, Paul II., abandoned the gen- 
erous policy of Pius. He armed against the 
heretical Bohemians that Matthias Corvinus 
whose prowess ought to have been exerted 
only against the Turks. 

Close of the Reign of Mohammed II. — 
While the Christians weakened themselves in 
this w^ay by divisions, Mohammed II. swore 
solemnly, in the mosque which had formerly 
been St. Sophia, the utter ruin of Christianity. 
Venice, abandoned by her allies, lost the island 
of Negropont, which was conquered by the 
Turks within sight of her fleet. The Turkish 
cavalry spread at last over the Friuli as far as 
the river Piave, burning the crops, villages, 
and palaces of the Venetian nobles ; the flames 
of this conflagration were even visible in the 



night from Venice itself. The republic aban- 
doned the unequal struggle, sacrificed Scu- 
tari, and submitted to a tribute (1479). ^^ did 
even more. During the siege of Rhodes, 
which had been undertaken by the Turkish 
forces, it was reported that one hundred Turk- 
ish vessels, observed, or rather escorted, by the 
Venetian fleet, had crossed to the coast of 
Italy — that Otranto had been taken, and its 
governor sav/ed in two. Terror was at its 
height, and would perhaps have been justified 
by the result of the invasion, if the death of 
Mohammed II. had not put a stop for a time to 
the course of Turkish conquest. 

Russia under the Tatar Yoke. — In con- 
quering Russia, the Tatars had no wish to take 
possession of the soil, or to take in their own 
hands the local administration. They de- 
manded simply an oath of allegiance from the 
princes, and a certain sum of tribute from the 
people. The princes perceiving that all at- 
tempts at resistance would be fruitless, soon 
became reconciled to their new position. In- 
stead of seeking to throw off the Khan's author- 
ity, they sought to gain his favor. Of all the 
princes who strove in this way to increase their 
influence, the most successful were the Princes 
OF Moscow. 

They '^ loved the Tatars beyojid measure'' so 
long as the Khan was irresistibly powerful^ 
but as soon as his power waned, they stood 
forth as his rivals. When the Golden Horde 
fell to pieces, these Moscow princes put them- 
selves at the head of the liberation movement^ 
which ultimately freed the country from the 
Tatar Yoke (1480), during the reign of Ivan 
III. 

The Last Ruriks. — During the Tatar in- 
vasion, the title of Grand Prince depended 
upon the favor of the Khan, and that favor 
was chiefly enjoyed by the Moscow princes, 
who eventually secured the title to their family 
and made it hereditary. This hereditary 
Grand-Principality of Moscow is the germ of 
modern Russia. The three principal causes 
which enabled Moscow first to rival, and then 
to absorb, the other principalities, were : The 
cautious policy of its princes, the favor shown 
to them by the clergy, and the assistance 
given to them by the Moscow boyars, w^ho 
played an important part in the administra- 
tion. 

Ivan I. (1328-1341) was the virtual founder of 
modern Russia ; he was the first who assumed 
the title of Grand Prince of all Russia. His 
grandson was the celebrated Dimitry Donskoi, 
the victor in the battle of Kulikovo (1380), 
which proved to be the beginning of the end 
of the Tatar dominion. During the long reign 
of his great-grandson, Ivan III. (1462-1505) 



96 



BURGUNDY. 



and Ivan's son, Vassily III. (1505-1533)^ the 
last remains of the appanage system disap- 
peared, and the grand prince of Moscow was 
left without a single rival who coidd contest 
his right to rule as autocrat of all Russia. 
Ivan IV., the Terrible (1533-1584), annexed 



the three Khanates of the Lower Volga — Kaza?f^ 
Kiptchack^ and Astrakhan — and in that way 
removed the danger of a foreign domination. 

With his son Feodor ended the dynasty of 
Rurik in the main line, which during seven 
centuries had wielded the Russian sceptre. 



WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 



FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 

Burgundy. — The name Burgundy was at 
different times applied to different districts. 

I. The Kingdom of the Burgundians, 
founded in 406 in the valley of the Saone and 
Lower Rhone. It was destroyed by the sons 
of Clovis in 534. 

II. The Kingdom of Burgundy, one of the 
Merovingian kingdoms. 

III. The Kingdom of Burgundy or of Pro- 
vence, sometimes called Cis-jurane Burgundy, 
founded by Boso in 877. It included the coun- 
try between the Saone and the Jura and the 
valley of the Tower Rhone. 

IV. The Kingdom of Trans-jurane Bur- 
gundy, founded by Rudolf in %%%^ which in- 
cluded Sw^itzerland between the Reuss and the 
Jura, with the northern part of Savoy. 

V. The Kingdom of Burgundy, or the Ar- 
LATiAN Kingdom, so called after its capital, 
Arles^ was formed by the union of Cis-jurane 
and Trans-jurane Burgundy in 937, by Conrad. 

VI. Lesser Burgundy was Trans-jurane 
Burgundy without the northern part of Savoy. 

VII. The Landgravate of Burgundy was 
that part of Lesser Burgundy which was situ- 
ated on both sides of the Aar, between Thun 
and Solothurn. 

VIII. The Circle of Burgundy was an ad- 
ministrative division of the German Empire, 
established in 1548, and was formed by the 
seventeen provinces of the Netherlands (les 
Pays de Pardega) and the Free County of 
Burgundy (les Pays de Pardela). 

IX. The Free County of Burgundy 
(Franche Comte), or Palatinate of Burgundy, to 
which the name Cis-jurane Burgundy properly 
belonged, was the country between the Saone 
and the Jura. Until its conquest by Louis 
XIV. in 1678, it was a county of the German 
Empire. 

X. The Duchy of Burgundy (Bourgogne), 
the most northerly part of the old Kingdom of 
the Burgundians, was always a fief of the 
crown of France. When the last of the old 
dukes died, in looi, it was incorporated by 



King Robert of France with the royal domain. 
Henry I. granted the duchy, however, in 1034, 
to his brother Robert, who became the an- 
cestor of the Capetian dukes of Burgundy. 
They became extinct with Philip de Rouvre, in 
1361. 

The Union of Artois with the County 
OF Burgundy, and of Both with Flanders. — 
Philip Augustus of France married Isabella, 
heiress of Artois. St. Louis granted the 
County of Artois to his brother Robert. When 
his race became extinct in the male line, in 
1343, it reverted to the heirs of Mathilda, 
daughter of Robert II. and aunt to the last 
count. 

This was Mathilda's eldest granddaughter 
Joan, who from her inherited Artois, and from 
her grandfather Otto, the County of Bur- 
gundy. She was married to Eudo IV., Duke 
of Burgundy, and their grandson (their only 
son, Philip, fell at Crecy), Philip, became, in 
1349, Duke of Burgundy and Count of 
Franche Comte and Artois. He married Mar- 
garet, heiress of Flanders, Malines, Antwerp, 
Nevers, Auxerre, and Rethel. On Philip's 
early death in 1362, without heirs male, the 
Duchy of Burgundy reverted, according to law, 
to the French crown, while the Counties of 
Burgundy and Artois were inherited by Mar- 
garet, the aged dowager-countess of Flanders, 
as heiress of her sister Joan. On Margaret's 
death, in 1382, they descended to her grand- 
child, Margaret, who in early youth had been 
the wife of the last Capetian Duke of Bur- 
gundy. 

Burgundian Dukes of the House of Va- 
lois. — On the death of the last Capetian 
Duke of Burgundy, in 1362, King John of 
France immediately took possession of the 
duchy. He went to Dijon and swore (Dec- 
ember 23, 1362), on the altar of St. Benignus, 
that he would maintain its privileges. Nine 
months afterward (September 6, 1363), he dis- 
posed of the Duchy of Burgundy in the fol- 
lowing terms : " Recalling again to memory 
the excellent and praiseworthy services of our 
right dearly beloved Philip, the fourth of our 



97 



THE SECOND ENGLISH INVASION OF FRANCE. 



sons, who freely exposed himself to death with 
us, and, all wounded as he was, remained un- 
wavering and fearless at the battle of Poitiers 
, . . . we do concede to him and give 
him the duchy and peerage of Burgundy, to- 
gether with all that we may have therein of 
right, possession, and proprietorship. . . . 
for the which gift our said son has done us 
homage as duke and premier peer of France." 

This Philip the Bold obtained in 136^, by 
his marriage with Margaret of Flanders, widow 
of Philip de Rouvre, the County of Burgundy, 
as a fief of the empire, and, on the death of his 
father-in-law in 1383, the Counties of Flanders, 
Artois, Rhetel, Auxerre, and Nevers, all fiefs 
of the crown of France. 

By this alliance it was hoped that France 
would absorb Flanders, and that the two na- 
tions, being united under one government, 
their interest would gradually become one. 
It did not turn out so. The Flemish inter- 
ests turned the scale. Interests hostile to 
France, commercial alliance with England 
— commercial at first, then political. 

Bourguignons and Armagnacs. — Charles 
v., the Wise, was succeeded at a too early 
age by his son Charles VI. (1380-1422), who, 
at his father's decease was a minor, and 
passed the greater part of his mature age in a 
state of insanity. Both these causes of weak- 
ness occasioned a struggle for supreme power 
between Louis of Orleans, the king's brother, 
and Philip of Burgundy, the king's uncle. 
On the death of Philip, in 1404, the contest 
was continued by his son, John the Fearless, 
who in 1407 caused the Duke of Orleans to be 
assassinated at Paris, and openly avowed and 
justified the deed. A civil war ensued, France 
was divided into two furious parties : the 
Armagnacs, so called from the Count of Armag- 
nac, father-in-law of the young Charles of 
Orleans, and the Bourguignons, or Burgundian 
faction. The Armagnacs supported the imbe- 
cile king and his son, the Dauphin ; the Bour- 
guignons were for a regency, to be conducted 
by the Queen, Isabel of Bavaria.' 

The House of Lancaster in England. — 
Henry IV^. (1400-1413) had during the first 
half of his reign a very troublesome time. 
With hostilities from France, Wales, and Scot- 
land, the new kins: found 



himself obliged 



to 



deal with disaffection and conspiracy among 
his own subjects. To this reign belong the 
adventures of the Hotspurs, Glendowers, and 
others, to whose temperament and cliaracter, 
if not to their true history, Shakespeare has 
given such vivid reality. Henry IV. had 
wholly lost before his death the measure of 
popularity he possessed in the early portion 
of his reign. His jealousy and suspicion had 



extended even to his own son, whom he had 
excluded from all power, lest a disloyal use 
should be made of it. On his deathbed he 
counselled this son to keep the great barons 
out of mischief by employing them in war; 
and bequeathed to him the policy of religious 
persecution, as the price that must be paid if 
the clergy were to be used as a balance against 
the more powerful among the laity. The heir- 
apparent was fully prepared to act upon these 
maxims. 

When Henry V. (1413-1422) ascended the 
English throne, the Orleanists had again gained 
the preponderance in France. They unfurled 
the Oriflamme against the Duke of Burgundy, 
who was now, in fact, hard-pressed. Henry 
negotiated with both parties. But while the 
Orleanists made difficulties about granting him 
the independent possession of the old English 
provinces, Burgundy declared himself ready 
to acknowledge him as king, but more with a 
view to turn to his own advantage the diver- 
sion occasioned by the English arms than to 
make over France to foreign dominion. 

The Second Invasion of France. — Henry 
could thus reckon on the sympathies of a part 
of the population of France when, in 1415, he 
led the power of England across the sea. The 
successful battle of Agincourt (October 25, 
1415), in which he destroyed the flower of the 
French nobility, gave him an undoubted supe- 
riority. But now the Duke of Burgundy, of- 
fended by the harshness of the terms proposed 
by Henry, as well as by the English king's 
personal bearing toward him, resolved to join 
the party of the Dauphin, and thus to restore 
peace to France. Negotiations were accord- 
ingly opened, and the Duke was invited to 
discuss the matter with the Dauphin. But 
the latter mistrusted the Duke, who was basely 
murdered in. presence and with connivance of 
the Dauphin, at an interview to which he had 
been invited on the bridge of Montereau 
(September, 1419). To avenge his father's 
death upon the Dauphin, Philip, the new 
duke, resolved to sacrifice France, and even 
his own family, which had eventual claims to 
the crown, by making it over to the English 
king. A treaty was accordingly concluded at 
Arras (toward the end of 1419) between Philip 
of Burgundy and King Henry V., by which 
Philip agreed to recognize Henry as king of 
France after the deatli of Charles VI.; and in 
consideration of Charles's mental imbecility, 
Henry was at once to assume the government 
of the kingdom, after marrying Catherine, the 
youngest of the daughters of the French king. 
This treaty was definitively executed at Troyes 
(May 21, 1420) by Charles VI., who knew not 
what he was signing, and by his Queen, Isabel 



98 



1415—1485 A. D. 



Plate XXXVIII 



FRANCE 

During the Second English. 

Invasion. 

1415-1453. 




JEANNE DARC. 



of Bavaria, who was stimulated at once by 
hatred of her son the Dauphin, and a doting 
affection for her daughter Catherine. The 
treaty was ratified by the States General of 
France and by the Parliament of Paris. Henry 
V. obtained possession of that capital, which 
was occupied by an English garrison imder 
the command of the Duke of Clarence, and on 
December i, 1420, the kings of France and 
England and the Duke of Burgundy entered 
Paris with great pomp. Finally, the birth of 
a son (142 1) seemed to fill up the measure of 
his prosperity. It was a very extraordinary 
position which Henry V. now occupied. The 
two great kingdoms of the West were (without 
being fused into one) to remain united forever 
under the house of Lancaster. Philip the 
Good of Burgundy was bound to him by ties 
of blood and by hostility to a common foe ; as 
heir of France Henry sat in the Parliament of 
Paris, by which the murderers of the late Duke, 
who were also the chief opponents of the new 
state of things, were prosecuted. Another 
promising connection was opened to him by 
the marriage of the youngest of his brothers 
with Jacqueline of Holland and Hainault, who 
possessed still more extensive hereditary 
claims. He recommended his eldest brother 
to Queen Joan of Naples, to be adopted as her 
son and heir. The king of Castile and the 
heir of Portugal were descended from his 
father's sisters. The pedigrees of Southern 
and Western Europe alike met in the house 
of Lancaster, the head of which thus seemed 
to be the common head of all. 

But it seems sometimes as though fortune 
were specially making a mock of man's frailty. 
In this fulness of power and of expectations, 
Henry V, was attacked by a disease which 
men did not know yet how to cure, and to 
which he succumbed (August 31, 1422). His 
heir was a boy nine months old. Henry on 
his deathbed had appointed his brother, the 
Duke of Bedford, to the regency of France ; 
his younger brother, the Duke of Gloucester, 
to that of England, and the Earl of Warwick 
to be guardian of his infant son. 

The Recovery of France. — Poor Charles 
VI., of France, within six weeks followed his 
heroic son-in-law to the grave (October 22d), 
and the Dauphin, assuming the title of Charles 
VII., caused himself to be crowned at Poitiers. 
The treaty of Troyes had rallied the national 
feeling of the French to the Dauphin, whose 
manners and disposition, as well as his lawful 
claim to the throne of France and the popular 
hatred of the English usurpers, had rendered 
him a favorite with the majority of the French 
nation ; and as a counterpoise to his infiuence 
the Regent Bedford drew closer his connec- 



tions both with the Dukes of Burgundy and 
Brittany, and tried to rule France with an in- 
creased participation on the part of the States 
General. But all his efforts could only be di- 
rected toward preserving these kingdoms for 
his nephew, Henry VI. We might almost 
wonder that this succeeded so well for a time ; 
in the long run it was impossible. The feel- 
ing of French nationality, which had already 
met the victor himself with secret warnings, 
found its most wonderful expression in Jeanne 
Darc, the Maid\N\io revived in the French their 
old attachment to their native king and his 
divine right. But Charles had already gained 
a firm footing before the appearance of the 
Maid by appeasing the enmity of the Duke of 
Burgundy, who really held the balance of 
power between the French and the English. 

Immediately after the death of the Regent 
Bedford, he concluded with Charles VII. the 
treaty of Arras (September 21, 1435), by which 
he received extensive grants in France and 
extended his boundary far beyond the river 
Somme (see Plate XL., upper map), with a 
condition, however, that the towns of Picardy 
might be repurchased by the French king for 
the sum of 400,000 crowns. Burgundy's al- 
liance with France proved to be the beginning 
of the end of the English dominion. On 
April 17, 1436, Paris opened its gates to 
Charles VII. In 1450 the English were forced 
to evacuate Normandy. In July, 1453, Charles 
VII. entered Guyenne with a large army. 
Talbot, the greatest of the English command- 
ers, fell fighting, in his eightieth year, before 
the town of Castillon, and his fate decided 
that of the duchy. Bordeaux, the last town 
which held out, submitted to Charles in Oc- 
tober, 1453 ; and thus, with the exception of 
Calais, the English were expelled from all their 
possessions in France. 

Greatness of the House of Burgundy. — 
Philip the Good, by his alliance with Charles 
VII., had really made the expulsion of the 
English possible. In 1453 he was the most 
powerful vassal in Western Europe. From the 
marriage of his grandfather with the heiress 
Margaret had issued three sons, John the Fear- 
less, Antony, and Philip, who on their father's 
death divided the inheritance among them. 
Each of them extended his share by marriage 
or by re-annexations. But all these portions, 
with their augmentations, fell ultimately to 
Philip the Good. His possessions stretched 
from the Zuyder Zee to near Paris, and from the 
Narrow Seas to the Jura. Flanders was one of 
the most prosperous countries of Europe. Of 
this prosperity the woollen manufacture was the 
chief foundation, in commemoration of which 
had been instituted (1430) the order of the 



L.orc. 



1)9 



1400 A. D, 



PLATE XXXIX. 




WAK OF THE ROSES. 



Golden Fleece. Ghent and Bruges were 
among the richest and most populous cities of 
Europe. But, on the other hand, the domin- 
ions of Philip the Good were farther removed 
than tliose of any prince in Europe from form- 
ing a compact whole. His various territories 
had as little geographical as they had political 
connection. They lay in two large masses, 
the two Burgundies forming one, and the 
Low Countries forming the other, so that their 
commion master could not go from one of his 
capitals to another without passing through a 
foreign territory. 

The War of the Roses. — The restoration 
of the lawful king in France reacted in Eng- 
land. There arose — awakened by the French 
restoration, and in a certain analogy with 
what liappened in France — the recollection of 
the rights which had been set aside by the ac- 
cession of the House of Lancaster. Their 
representative, Richard, Duke of York, had 
hitherto kept quiet ; for he was fully con- 
vinced that a right cannot perish merely be- 
cause it lies dormant. Cautiously and step by 
step, while letting others run the first risk, he 
at last came forward openly with his claim to 
the crown. Great was the astonishment of 
Henry VI., who as far as his memory reached 
had been regarded as king, to find his right to 
the highest dignity doubted and denied. But 
such was now the case. The nation was split 
into two parties, one of which held fast to the 
monarchy established by the parliament (the 
Lancastrians, or red rose), while the other 
wished to recur to the principle of legitimate 
succession then violated (the Yorkists, or white 
rose). The Genealogical Table will show the 
descent of both parties. The Yorkists as such, 
descendants of the fifth son of Edward HI., 
could make no claim against the Lancastrians 
(descendants of the fourth son of Edw^ard IV.), 
but they based their right to the throne on 
their descent from Lionel of Clarence (third 
son of Edward III.). 

The crisis was precipitated by the discon- 
tent of the English people at the loss of 
France, by the unpopularity of Henry VI. 's 
French wife, the imperious Margaret of An- 
jou, and by the hatred felt toward her minis- 
ter, William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk. Still, 
Richard of York did not wish to claim openly 
the crown to which, as heir-presumptive, he 
might look to succeed without bloodshed. 
But the birth of a Prince of Wales (October, 
1453) precluded all hope of a peaceful issue of 
the rival claims of York and Lancaster. 

About a month before this birth Henry VI. 
had sunk into one of his strange fits of leth- 
argy (an heirloom of his maternal grandfather). 
During the king's illness the Duke of York 



had been made Protector of the Realm, but the 
rights of the king and of his infant heir were 
sedulously reserved. The recovery of the 
king, in 1454, was followed by the restoration 
to power of the king's unpopular advisers. 
The Duke of York and the Earls of Salisbury 
and Warwick now took up arms against Henry. 
They were victorious at St. Albans (May 22, 
1455). This was the first blood shed in a war 
which was to last thirty years (1455-1485), 
which cost the lives of eighty nobles, and ex- 
terminated the ancient baronage of England. 
York took his king prisoner, carried him in 
triumph back to London, and contented him- 
self with the title of Protector. Margaret of 
Anjou now armed the northern counties, but 
she was beaten at Northampton (July 10, 
1460), and the conqueror, no longer conceal- 
ing his pretensions, made the parliament de- 
clare him heir-presiunptive to the throne. He 
was thus close to the object of his ambition, 
vv'hen lie encountered near Wakefield an army 
which the indefatigable Margaret had again 
assembled. He accepted battle in spite of 
the inferiority of his forces, was defeated and 
slain, and his gory head, with a paper crown 
upon it, was placed upon the wall of York 
(December 30, 1460). 

Warwick now made the London populace 
proclaim the son of York king, under the name 
of Edward IV. (1461), and soon led him to 
meet Margaret at Towton. It was there that 
during a whole day, in a heavy fall of snow, 
the two parties fought with a fury which was 
remarkable even in civil war (March 29, 146 1). 

The queen fled to France and promised 
Louis XI. to give him Calais as a pledge in 
exchange for his feeble assistance. But the 
fleet which brought the French assistance was 
destroyed by a storm ; she lost the battle of 
Hexham (1464), and with it her last hope. The 
unfortunate Henry soon fell once more into 
the hands of his enemies, and the queen with 
her son reached France. 

After the victory the spoil had to be divided. 
Warwick, although he had the principal share, 
had far less power and influence than he had 
expected. He therefore made friends with the 
very Margaret of Anjou who had beheaded his 
father, and brought her back into England. 

Edward did not awake until he heard that 
Warwick was marching upon him with upward 
of 60,000 men. Betrayed by his own troops 
at Nottingham, he fled so precipitately that he 
landed almost alone" in the states of the Duke 
of Burgundy. But Edw^ard was soon recalled 
to England. He disembarked at Ravenspur 
(at the mouth of the Humber) on the very spot 
on which in former times Henry IV. had landed 
to overthrow Richard II. He advanced with- 



100 



HENRY VII. — LOUIS I. 



out impediment, and declared by tlie way that 
he demanded only the inheritance of his father, 
the Duchy of York. But as soon as his army 
was strong enough he threw down the mask, 
and conquered the Lancastrians at Barnet 
(April 4, 147 1). Margaret, again attacked be- 
fore she could gather round her her remaining 
forces, was conquered and taken prisoner with 
her son at Tewkesbury (May 4, 147 1). The 
Prince of Wales was murdered after the battle, 
and on the same day that Edward IV. entered 
London, Henry VL is said to have perished 
in the Tower by the hand of Gloucester him- 
self (1471). 

From that moment the triumph of the white 
rose was assured — Edward had only his brother 
to fear. He anticipated Clarence by putting 
him to death, but Edward himself was poison- 
ed by Gloucester (1483). 

Edward had hardly left the throne to his lit- 
tle son, Edward V., when Gloucester caused 
himself to be appointed Protector. A subser- 
vient parliament next declared the young 
princes bastards and sons of a bastard. 

The rabble threw their bonnets into the air, 
crying, ''God save King Richard!" and he 
accepted the crown, " in accordance ivith the voice 
of the people.'' The children were smothered 
in the Tower, but Richard was far from being 
firmly seated on his throne. In the depths of 
Britany there lived a descendant of the House 
of Lancaster, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, 
who by many was believed to be the rightful 
heir to the crown. 



TRANSITION PERIOD. 

Descent of the Tudors. — John of Gaunt | 
had married, three years before his death, his | 
mistress Catherine Swyneford. Their four 1 
children were legitimatized by act of parlia- 
ment in 1397. Margaret Beaufort became, in i 
1455, heiress of the immense wealth of this 
younger branch of the House of Lancaster. 
She married in that year Edmund Tudor, Earl 
of Richmond, half-brother to King Henry VI. 
For on the death of Henry V. his widow had 
become the wife of Owen Tudor, a gentleman 
of her household and a native of Wales. Tudor 
had three sons by this marriage, the eldest of t 
which was the afore-mentioned Edmund Tudor. \ 
Their son was Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. I 

The Duke of Buckingham (descendant of the 
younger branch of the Beauforts) to whose 
services Richard largely owed the crown, | 
headed an insurrection in favor of this Henry 
Tudor. He paid for his rash attempt with his 
life (1483). i 

Two years later (1485) Richmond made an- 
other attempt, landing at Milford Haven (in 



the southwest of Wales). Richard, not know- 
ing whom to trust, hastened the catastrophe 
by advancing on Bosworth, where he was com- 
pletely defeated and slain (August 22, 1485). 

Henry VII. — The paternal relationship of 
Richmond, and his being so little known in 
England, were not circumstances in his favor. 
But the men opposed to Richard were bent 
upon displacing him, and there was no other 
quarter to which they could look with the 
same prospect of success. They were men, 
moreover, who had learned to count it an ad- 
vantage that the king should not be allowed 
to feel himself so strong as to be tempted to 
assume independence from his nobles. This 
notion had been the prolific source of incalcu- 
lable mischief during the last hundred years. 
But it had now pretty nearly done its work. 
Henry VII. suffered from it. He lived, how- 
ever, to frustrate one conspiracy after another, 
and putting down, with a strong hand, that 
liveried and armed following of the nobility 
which had served to make them all so many 
petty kings, he left the English throne in a 
much more stable condition than he found it. 

Henry's marriage with Elizabeth, the eldest 
daughter of Edward IV., no doubt contributed 
largely to this result, the conflicting claims of 
York and Lancaster being thus harmonized in 
his person. 

But even this event might not have sufficed 
to insure tranquillity, apart from the general 
caution and ability of his riile. His firm and 
sagacious policy sufficed to smooth the way 
for the great transitions from the mediaeval to 
the modern in English history. 

Louis XI. and Charles the Bold. — 
Charles VII. of France, created (1439) ^ P^i"- 
manent army of over 7,000 men, which was 
not to subsist, like the bands formerly raised 
by the nobles, by robbery and plunder, but to 
receive regular pay. Nine years later (1448) 
he instituted a militia of Free Archers, who 
were to remain at home and train themselves 
in arms on Sundays. By these measures the 
nobility were deprived of all military com- 
mand except through the authority of the 
king. Thus the contest was now vigorously 
entered on between the French king and his 
feudal nobility which ended in making France 
a powerful and absolute monarchy. 

Louis XI. (1462-1483) deprived at his ac- 
cession the nobility of all influence. Their 
wrath did not burst out in revolt until the 
weakness of the old Duke of Burgundy had 
thrown the whole of his power in the hands of 
his son the celebrated Charles tlie Bold. Then 
the great vassals leagued together under his 
leadership '^ for the public weal" [146^). Louis 
broke up the league by the concessions of the 



101 



CHARLES THE BOLD. 



Treaty of Conflans, by which the towns on the 
Somme should be restored to Charles the Bold 
and Normandy granted to the Duke of Berry ; 
to all the rest, fortresses, lordships, and pen- 
sions. The king not only evaded its execution, 
but obliged the states general of the King- 
dom (at Tours in 1466) to annul the principal 
articles of the Treaty of Conflans. 

About this time (1467) Charles the Bold 
became, by the death of his father, Duke of 
Burgundy. Louis XL, who still hoped to ap- 
pease him, went himself to meet him at Pe- 
ronne (1468). He had scarcely arrived when 
the duke heard of the revolt of the citizens of 
Liege, a revolt excited by agents of the king. 
The fury of the duke was so great that for a 
moment the king feared for his own life. The 
duke contented himself with forcing him 
to confirm the Treaty of Conflans, and with 
bringing him before Liege to witness the de- 
struction of the town. The king on his return 
did not fail to cause the states general to an- 
nul all that he had sworn. 

A more formidable confederation than that 
of the Public Weal was next formed against 
him. His brother, on whom he had just be- 
stowed Guyenne, and the Dukes of Burgundy 
and Brittany had drawn into it most of the 
nobles who had before been faithful to the 
king. They invited the King of Aragon, Juan 
n., who claimed the province of Roussillon, 
and the King of England, who claimed ''^ his 
ki?igdo?n of France.'* The death of his brother 
could alone break the league, and his brother 
died (1472). He now repulsed Juan H. from 
Roussillon, Charles the Bold from Picardy, 
and secured all his enemies within the king- 
dom. When the English came in 1475, Louis 
XI. arranged a meeting at Pequigny (near 
Amiens) between himself and Edward IV. ; 
the Dauphin was betrothed to Edward's eldest 
daughter Elizabeth (subsequently the Queen 
of Henry VII.) and peace concluded. 

After this time Louis XI. had nothing more 
to fear from Charles the Bold, who had con- 
ceived the design of re-establishing, on a vast- 
er scale, the ancient kingdom of Burgundy by 
uniting to his own states, Lorraine, Provence, 
Dauphine, and Switzerland. Louis XI. took 
care not to make him uneasy ; he prolonged 
the truces and allowed him ^^ to go and knock his 
head against the Siviss.'' 

Charles the Bold and the Swiss.— The 
Austrian possessions in the Upper Elzass and 
Suabia had been mortgaged by their duke, 
Sigismund, to Charles the Bold. The tyranny 
exercised by Charles' governor, Hagenbach, 
made the inhabitants try their utmost to pay 
off the mortgage. But Charles, who wanted 
to keep the territory, refused to take it, and 



ordered Hagenbach to resist. But he was 
seized, tried, and executed (May, 1474). Charles 
avenged his governor by ravaging Elzass, which 
called upon the Swiss for aid and protection. 
They allied themselves with their old enemies, 
the Austrians, and defeated the Burgundians at 
Hericourt (November 13, 1474). The duke in- 
vaded Switzerland, took Granson, and drowned 
all the garrison, who had surrendered to him 
on parole. The Swiss army, however, was 
advancing ; Charles had the imprudence to go 
to meet it. Taking his stand on the hill which 
still bears his name, he saw them rush down 
from the mountains crying, Gransofi ! G?'an- 
son I The Burgundians tried again and again 
without success to break through the forest of 
pikes which advanced at a run. The rout was 
soon complete ; the duke's camp, his guns, 
and his treasures, fell into the conquerors' 
hands (March, 1476). Three months afterward, 
he again attacked the Swiss, at Morat, and ex- 
perienced a still more bloody defeat. 

Fall of Charles the Bold.— Rene II., who 
had been deprived by Charles of his inheri- 
tance, took advantage of his distress to attempt 
the recovery of his Duchy of Lorraine. He 
drove the Burgundians from the open country 
into the town of Nancy, which he took (Octo- 
ber, 1476). Charles resolved immediately to 
attempt the recovery of Nancy. He assaulted 
the town in the very presence of Rene's army. 
The assault was repulsed, and Rene then of- 
fered him battle (January 5, 1477). The Bur- 
gundians had to retreat, during which Charles 
was slain unrecognized. Thus perished mis- 
erably, in the midst of his ambi.tious dreams, 
Charles of Burgundy, a prince who displayed 
no single sign of deep or enlarged policy, but 
whose whole career was one simple embodi- 
ment of military force — not a man to found 
an empire, but the very man to lose the do- 
minions which he' had himself inherited and 
conquered. 

The Duchy of Burgundy was now united 
with the French crown. Louis XI. had hoped 
to obtain the whole inheritance of Charles the 
Bold by marrying the Dauphin to his daughter, 
Marie de Valois. But the States of Flanders 
bestowed the hand of their sovereign on Maxi- 
milian of Austria, afterward Emperor and 
grandfather of Emperor Charles V. 

End of Louis XL— Charles VIII.— When 
Louis XL left the kingdom to his infant son 
(1483), France, which had suffered much in 
silence, at length raised her voice. The states 
general, assembled in 1484 by the regent, Anne 
de Beaujeu, wished to give its delegates the 
chief influence in the Council of Regency, to 
vote the supplies for only two years, at the 
end of which they would be again assembled, 



102 



1461—1483 A. D. 



Plate XL. 




RIENZI — THE HUSSITES. 



and themselves to decide on the taxes which 
should be levied. But the assembly was sud- 
denly dissolved. The regent continued the 
system of Louis XL by her firmness with re- 
gard to the nobles. She overpowered the 
Duke of Orleans, who disputed with her the 
regency, and prepared the annexation of Brit- 
tany to the crown by marrying her brother to 
the heiress of that duchy (1491). The posses- 
sors of three great fiefs. Burgundy, Provence, 
and Brittany, having died without male issue, 
the French crown dismembered the first (1477), 
acquired the second by bequest (1481), and the 
third by means of a marriage (149 1). 

THE EMPIRE AND THE PAPACY. 

Rienzi. — The papacy had lost much of its 
influence by the removal of the papal court to 
Avignon in 1305, where it remained more than 
seventy years. During this time Rome was 
convulsed by deadly feuds between the noble 
families of the Orsini, Colonna, and Savelli. 
The monuments of antiquity — the Arch of Ti- 
tus, and the Colosseum were fortified as the 
strongholds of rival clans. At this time (1347),. 
Cola di Rienzi sought to revive the ancient 
republic. Of humble origin, he was the 
friend of Petrarch the poet, and possessed a 
fiery eloquence that moved the masses. Elect- 
ed tribune, he ruled for seven months, when 
he was driven out by the cardinals and the 
nobles. When he afterward returned (1354) 
as papal senator of Innocent VL, to aid in 
winning back Rome to subjection to the Holy 
See, he found that his power was gone. He 
disgusted the people with pomps and shows, 
and w4iile trying to escape in disguise, was 
put to death. Cardinal Albornoz succeeded 
in restoring order in Rome. 

The Council of Constanz. — This was the 
period of the attacks on the Church by Italian 
and English writers. The schism which en- 
sued soon after the restoration of the Papal 
residence to Rome by Gregory XL in 1376, 
was also most prejudicial to the papacy. Af- 
ter the death of Gregory, through dissensions 
among the cardinals, the tiara was claimed by 
a pope and an anti-pope. The Council of Pisa, 
assembled to decide this dispute in 1409, only 
more embroiled the fray. It deposed both 
the rival popes, Gregory XIII. and Benedict 
XIII., and elected Alexander V. in their place. 
But as the deposed popes found many adhe- 
rents, it became necessary to appeal to another 
council, which was assembled at Constanz in 
1414. 

It announced at once the three great ob- 
jects it wished to accomplish : The suppression 
of heresy ; the healing of the schism ; and the 



reformation of the Church. The reforming 
party in the council, principally led by French 
ecclesiastics (Jean Gerson, Nicholas de Cle- 
manges and Pierre d'Ailly), proclaimed its 
superiority over the pope, 2,vA then took up the 
suppression of heresy. It condemned the doc- 
trines of the Englishman Wiclif, and the chief 
missionary and developer of this doctrine, 
John Huss. This Huss (1375-1415) was quite 
as much a politician as a theologian. He 
wrote in the vernacular (Bohemian) tongue, 
defended the nationality of Bohemia against 
foreigners, and withstood the popes especially, 
as being foreigners. But he did not attack the 
papacy itself. He had repaired to the council 
under a safe conduct from Emperor Sigismund. 
In violation of this pledge, he was condemned 
to be burned (July, 1415), and his disciple, Je- 
rome of Prague, underwent afterward the same 
fate (1416). After the execution of Huss, the 
healing of the schism was taken up. The three 
popes were deposed and Martin V. was elected 
(November, 1417) with the understanding that 
he should reform the Church. 

The Hussite Wars. — Terrible was the 
indignation of the Bohemians at the execu- 
tion of Huss. His followers, the Hussites, at- 
tempted to spread his doctrines by force. Led 
by the little Procop and by the one-eyed Zis- 
ca, they carried everything before them, and 
on Procop's death the drum made of his skin 
continued to lead those barbarians, and beat 
through Germany its murderous roll. After 
the death of Wenceslaus in 141 9, his brother, 
Emperor Sigismund, was heir to the Bohe- 
mian throne. He was crowned in Prague, but 
the Hussites not only forced him to leave the 
country but drove back the imperial troops. 
Sigismund was disgracefully defeated (1422) 
at Deutsch-Brod. 

The Imperial Crown Devolves on the 
Habsburgs. — Sigismund, the last of the 
House of Luxemburg, died December 9, 1437. 
He left only a daughter, wedded to the then 
Albert, Duke of Austria ; which Albert, on the 
strength of this, came to the crowns of Bohe- 
mia and Hungary, as his wife's inheritance, 
and to that of the empire by election. Died 
thereupon in a few months ; " three crowns, 
Bohemia, Hungary, and the empire in that 
one year, 1438, and then next year he quitted 
them all, for a fourth and more lasting crown, 
as is hoped." 

At the death of Albert II. the Germans 
elected to the imperial throne Frederick HI., 
eldest son of Ernest the Iron, who gradually 
inherited all the Habsburg possessions. From 
this time the imperial crown was transmitted 
in the House of Habsburg as if it had been an 
hereditary possession. 



103 



1467—1477 A. n. 



Plate_XLI. 



CENTL. SWITZERLAND 

THE SCENE OF THE SWISS STRUGGLE 



Hdbsburg- 



AGAINST HABSBURG. 



Ameland 
Terschellina^^ ^=* 



BIJRG.UNDIAN DOMINION 

OF 

CHARLES THE BOLD. 



The countries directly ruled \ 

Charl 
The other Hurgundian countries are marked 

with a border of the color of Burgundy 






Tlie Red and Buff lines mark the bound- 
aines of France and the Empire, shovy 
iny which of the Burgundian countries 
were French and which German. 




Ci»., Eofii's and Pi's, N/V, 



THE HANSA — THE SWISS LEAGUE. 



Princely Houses of Germany. — All the 
leading princely houses of Germany which 
have retained their power to the present time 
had already established themselves in the fif- 
teenth century. 

The Hohenzollerns, ancestors of the pres- 
ent Emperor of Germany, had been confirmed 
in the permanent possession of Brandenburg. 
Prussia was held (since 1226) by the Knights 
of the Teutonic Order, who had conquered it 
from its heathen inhabitants. By the peace of 
Thorn (October 19, 1466) the knights had been 
obliged to cede a part of their dominions and 
to consent to hold the rest under the sover- 
eignty of Poland. After the extinction of the 
Askanian house (1423), Sigismund invested 
Frederick the Warlike, of the House of Wet- 
tin, Margrave of Meissen, with the electoral 
Duchy of Saxony. In 1455 the two young 
princes, Ernst and Albert, sons of the Elector 
Frederick II., were carried off from the Castle 
of Altenburg by Ctinz von Kaiiffungen^ but soon 
voluntarily returned. They became the ances- 
tors of the two lines of the House of Wettin, 
the Ernestine line (to which belongs the pres- 
ent Prince of Wales), and the Albertine line, 
represented by the present King of Saxony. 
The two great duchies of Franconia and Sua- 
bia had become extinct in the thirteenth cen- 
turv. Different branches of the House of 
Wittelsbach ruled in Bavaria and the Rhen- 
ish Palatinate. 

The Hansa. — In the second half of the thir- 
teenth century several seaport and trading cit- 
ies between the Baltic and Elbe had formed a 
commercial league. They attained in the four- 
teenth century wide extent and great power. 
After this time the name Hansa (/>., trade 
guild) was commonly applied to the league. 
Since 1350 over ninety cities, extending from 
the mouth of the Schelde to Esthonia, besides 
many inland cities, belonged to this Hansa. 
The chief tribunal of the league was at Lu- 
beck; inferior tribunals were at Dantzig, Bruns- 
wick, and Cologne. On the coast of the Bal- 
tic was the main strength of the Hansa, which 
overshadowed the power of the Scandinavian 
kings — much more, therefore, that of the 
neighboring German princes. Their princi- 
pal trading stations were Novgorod, Stock- 
holm, Wisby (in Gothland), Bergen, Bruges, 
and London. 

Free Imperial Cities. — All over Germany 
and especially in Franconia, Suabia, on the 
upper Danube, and on the Rhine, had arisen a 
number (ninety-five) of free imperial cities not 
included in the dominions of any of the princes, 
and depending immediately upon the empire. 
The liberties and privileges of the imperial 
cities were fostered by the emperors, in order 



that they might afford some counterpoise to 
the power of the prelates and nobles, whose 
natural enemies they were, and with whom 
they waged continual war. The most con- 
siderable were : In Franconia, Mainz and 
Frankfort ; in Bavaria, Neuremberg and Rat- 
isbon ; in Suabia, Ulm and Augsburg ; in 
Alsace, Strassburg ; in Lorraine, Cologne and 
Aix-la-Chapelle ; in Saxony^ Dortmund and 
Magdeburg. 

The Swiss League. — The land we now 
call Switzerland was, about 1300, divided into 
various small districts. There were found four 
imperial cities {Zurich, Bern, Basle, and Schaff- 
hausen) and a number of small districts, among 
the most important of which were those be- 
longing to the houses of Savoy and Habsburg. 
In 1308, three cantons, Schwyz, Uri, and Unter- 
walden, which from time immemorial had en- 
joyed a democratic form of government, 
leagued together against the encroachments 
of the House of Habsburg. When it at- 
tempted to reduce the refractory cantons, 
Leopold of Habsburg was completely defeated 
at the famous battle of Morgarten (November 
j6, 1315). After this event* the three can- 
tons entered into a perpetual union (1318), 
which was gradually joined by various other 
districts. After Lucerne joined them in 1332 
they were called the four forest cantons. In 
T351 they were joined by Zurich, Glarus, Zug, 
and Bern. Leopold of Habsburg, who tried 
to reduce Lucerne to obedience, fell with 2,000 
knights at Sempach (1386). A new attempt 
to coerce the confederates ended in the Habs- 
burg defeat at Naefels (1388). In the begin- 
ning of the fifteenth century the eight cantons 
were a recognized power, under the name of 
the Old League of High Germany. The names 
of Swiss and Switzerland did not come into use 
till after the expedition of Charles VII. of 
France, in 1444, undertaken at the request of 
the Emperor Frederick III., with a view to 
defend the town of Zurich, which had claimed 
his protection, against the attacks of the other 
cantons. In the course of the fifteenth cen- 
tury the Swiss began to adopt the singular 
trade of hiring themselves out to fight the 
battles of foreigners. Switzerland became a 
sort of nursery for soldiers. The peculiar 
arm of the Swiss infantry was a long lance, 
which they grasped in the middle, and the 
firm hold thus obtained is said to have been 
the chief secret of their victories. 

THE PYREN^AN PENINSULA. 

The Christian Kingdoms. — Resistance to 
the Mohammedans in Spain began in the Nor- 
thern mountainous region of Cantabria and 



104 



CASTILE AND ARAGON. 



AstLiria, which even the Visigoths had not 
wholly subdued, although Asturia was called 
Gothia. 

This Christian principality of Asturia (some- 
times called Oviedo), after tlie conquest of the 
country as far as the Douroby Alfonso III. was 
called (916) the Kingdom of Leon, after the new 
residence, Leon. Castile, so-called from the 
castles erected against the Moors, was an east- 
ern county of this kingdom. East of Leon 
there grew up the Kingdom of Navarre, mostly 
on the southern but partly on the northern 
side of the Pyrenees. It guarded the pass of 
Roncesvalles. At first a county under French 
supremacy, it gradually became independent. 
Sancho I. assumed the title of King of Navarre 
(905) and subjugated Aragon, originally a 
Frankish county, to the north of Navarre. His 
grandson, Sancho the Great (970-1035), united 
the whole of Christian Spain with the sole ex- 
ception of Leon. On his death his kingdom 
was divided among his sons. Ferdinand, who 
had married the heiress of Leon, got Castile. 
Thus the united kingdom of Leon and Castile 
was formed. Garcia (1053-1054) became king 
of Navarre and Ramiro (1035-1063) inherited 
Aragon. Under Alfonso VI. (1072-1109) they 
were all once more united. In the middle of 
the fifteenth century there were on the Span- 
ish peninsula four Ciiristian kingdoms and 
the Mohammedan kingdom of Granada in the 
south. Of these, Navarre comprised only a 
comparatively small district at the western 
extremity of the Pyrenees ; to Aragon were 
attached the independent lands of Catalonia 
and Valencia. Portugal embraced the low- 
lands in the west, while Castile occupied the 
rest of Christian Spain. 

Castile. — The boundaries of Castile were 
gradually enlarged by successive acquisitions. 
In 1368, a revolution, which drove Pedro the 
Cruel from the throne established on it the 
house of Trastamara. The grandson of Henry 
of Trastamara, Henrylll., died in 1406, leaving 
the crown to Juan II., an infant scarcely one 
year old. This long minority exposed the king- 
dom to confusion and anarchy, and subsequent- 
ly the weakness of Juan's mind rendered him 
only fit to be governed by others. During 
nearly the whole of his reign (1406-1454) Don 
Alvaro de Luna, Constable of Castile, pos- 
sessed almost unlimited power. He had, how- 
ever, to maintain a constant struggle with the 
Castilian grandees, with whom, at length, even 
the king himself combined against him. In 
1453 he was entrapped at Burgos, and executed 
like a common malefactor in the public place 
of Valladolid (July, 1453). Juan II. soon found 
to his cost the value of Alvaro, and that he 
had no longer any check upon the insolence 



of the grandees. He survived the constable 
only one year, and died in July, 1454, leaving 
two sons, Henry and Alfonso, the elder of 
whom ascended the throne. He also left a 
daughter by his second wife, Isabella. 

Henry IV. of Castile was, if possible, still 
weaker than his father, and was governed as 
absolutely by Don Juan Pacheco as Juan II. 
had been by Alvaro de Luna. In 1465 he was 
solemnly deposed and his brother Alfonso 
made king. A furious civil war, which ensued, 
was checked by the sudden death of Alfonso 
(July 5, 1468). His party now proclaimed 
Isabella Queen of Castile ; but as she steadily 
refused to accept that title so long as her 
brother Henry lived, it became necessary to 
effect an accommodation. 

At an interview between Henry and Isabella 
at Toros de Guisando, in New Castile (Septem- 
ber 9, 1468) the king solemnly recognized his 
sister as his successor, and the nobles tendered 
to her the oath of allegiance. 

Aragon. — On the death of Sancho the Great 
of Navarre, in 1035, Aragon, like Castile, 
became an independent kingdom, under San- 
cho's younger son, Ramiro. The grandson, Al- 
fonso I., wrested Saragossa from the Moors 
and made it, instead of Huesca, the capital 
of Aragon. 

In 1 137 Catalonia became united to Aragon 
by the marriage of the Aragonese heiress, 
Petronilla (daughter of Alfonso's brother, Ram- 
iro II.), with Raymond, Count of Barcelona. 
This was a most important acquisition for 
Aragon, for the Catalans, a bold and hardy 
race, and excellent sailors, enabled the Arago- 
nese monarchs to extend their dominions by 
sea. Under king James I. of Aragon (1213- 
1276) Minorca and Valencia were recovered 
from the Moors. His son, Pedro III., wrested 
Sicily from the tyrannical hands of Charles of 
Anjou. On his death in 1285, Don Pedro left 
the crown of Sicily to his second son James ; 
and from this period Sicily formed an inde- 
pendent kingdom under a separate branch of 
the House of Aragon, down to the death of 
Martin the Younger in 1409. That monarch 
dying without legitimate children, the throne 
of Sicily came to his father, Martin the Elder, 
King of Aragon ; and the two kingdoms re- 
mained henceforth united till the beginning 
of the eighteenth century. With the death of 
Martin the Elder (1410) the male branch of the 
House of Barcelona became extinct. His sis- 
ter Eleanor had been the queen of Juan I. of 
Castile. Two children were born from .this 
union, Henry and Ferdinand ; Henry had be- 
come king of Castile (1390-1406), Ferdinand 
was in 1410 regent for his nephew, Juan II. 
This Ferdinand was chosen as the successor of 



105 



MILAN — FLORENCE — VENICE. 



Martin the Elder in Aragon and Sicily. He 
was succeeded in 1416 by his son, Alfonso the 
Wise, who conquered Naples in 1435 and was 
acknowledged'king in 1442. 

On his death, in 1458, he left Naples to his 
natural son Ferdinand. But he declared his 
brother John, King of Navarre, heir to Aragon 
and all its dependencies (Valencia, Catalonia, 
Majorca, Sardinia, and Sicily). His son was 
that Ferdinand who, by his marriage with Isa- 
bella in 1469, paved the way for the future 
union of Spain. 

Portugal.— About 1095 Alfonso VI., King of 
Castile and Leon, gave the territory between 
the Minho and the Douro to his son-in-law, 
Henry of Burgundy, who assumed the title of 
Count of Portugal. His son and successor, 
Alfonso I., who defeated the Moors at Ourique 
in 1 139, was hailed as king by his army, and 
later was confirmed in the title by the Pope 
(1185). His line continued to reign uninter- 
ruptedly in Portugal till 1383, when, on the 
death of King Ferdinand, John I. of Castile, 
who had married his daughter Beatrix and 
obtained from him a promise of the Portu- 
guese succession for the issue of the marri- 
age, claimed the throne. But the Portuguese, 
anxious to remain independent from Castile, 
declared John the Bastard, illegitimate brother 
of Ferdinand, to be their king ; and after a 
civil war of two years' duration he was, with 
the assistance of England, established on the 
throne, with the title of John I., by the de- 
cisive battle of Aljubarrota (1385). This John 
became the founder of a dynasty which occu- 
pied the Portuguese throne till 1580. 

ITALY. 

Milan. — Originally an archbishopric, John 
Galeazzo Visconti procured, in 1396, the erec- 
tion of Milan and its diocese as a duchy and 
imperial fief. With Philip Maria, the younger 
of Gian Galeazzo's two sons, ended the dynasty 
of the Visconti, which, as archbishops and 
dukes, had ruled Milan 170 years (1277-1447). 
As he left no legitimate children, his death 
occasioned four claims to the succession. 
These claims were : 

ist. That of Charles of Orleans, as the son of 
Valentina Visconti, sister of the late duke ; 

2d. That of Bianca, Philip's illegitimate 
daughter, and of her husband Francesco 
Sforza ; 

3d. That of Alfonso, King of Naples, which 
rested on a testament of the deceased duke ; 

4th. That of the emperor, who, in default of 
heirs-male, claimed the duchy as a lapsed fief. 

After three years of anarchy, Francesco 
Sforza seized on the supreme power (February 



7, 1450), which his family continued to hold 
for fifty years. 

Florence. — The most flourishing period of 
the Florentine Republic was from 1382 to 1434, 
during which it was under the government of 
the Guelfic party of the Albizzi. At this time 
Florence counted 150,000 inhabitants, and en- 
joyed a revenue of about eiglit hundred thou- 
sand dollars. Although its situation excluded 
it from that large sphere of foreign commerce 
enjoyed by Genoa and Venice, for it had no 
port of its own till it acquired Pisa by con- 
quest and Leghorn by purchase from Genoa, 
it had not been entirely destitute of maritime 
trade, finding a harbor in the Sianese port of 
Telamone. In 1434 Cosmo de Medici suc- 
ceeded in overthrowing the party of the Al- 
bizzi and seizing the reins of government. 
From this time, for three centuries, the history 
of Florence is connected with that of the 
Medici. As Cosmo's power was chiefly sup- 
ported by the lower classes, he was enabled to 
extend it by means of his wealth, and he at 
length succeeded in reducing the government 
to a small oligarchy, having in 1452 vested the 
privilege of naming the Signory in only five 
persons. To support his own dominion he 
courted the friendship of Francis Sforza, the 
Duke of Milan. 

Venice. — Her power and pretensions both 
by sea and land were typified in her armorial 
device — a lion, having two feet on the sea, a 
third on the plains, the fourth on the moun- 
tains. Her territorial dominions, however, 
were the offspring of her vast commerce and 
of her naval supremacy. After the Crusades 
and the war with Genoa, which lasted 125 
years, Venice was mistress of the Mediter- 
ranean, and the trade with the East during the 
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but it 
rose to the height of its power in the first half 
of the fifteenth century. Then she ruled, by 
means of \\qv proveditors, in almost every port 
from the extremity of the Adriatic to that of 
the Black Sea. In this aristocratic republic 
existed neither favoritism, nor caprice, nor 
prodigality. Theirs was truly an iron gov- 
ernment, but which could last only by draw- 
ing closer and closer together the strings of 
power. If this insured prosperity in the foreign 
relations of the state, it dried up the sources 
of its internal prosperity. From 1423 to 1453 
Venice had added four provinces to her ter- 
ritory, while her revenue had diminished by 
more than two hundred thousand dollars. In 
T498 it acquired Cyprus by the gift of Cath- 
arine Cornaro. 

Naples. — The basis of the Kingdom of Sic- 
ily was laid by Norman adventurers in the lat- 
ter part of the eleventh century. The line 



106 



1543 A.D. 



Plate XLII. 



THE RHINE COUNTRIES 
AFTER 1543. 

; Netherlands as they fame into the pos- 

session of Philip II in IJo6 I I 

THE FOUR RHENISH ELECTORATES: 
Archbishopric of Cologne. 
'< " Treves- 

" " Mayenee 

" " Palatinate. 

'he Cleve Possessions 

Lorraine and Bar.. 

French Ear. 

Jfarquisaie of Baden.. 
'rench Jjoundary 



,'riesiand/ ^ ; / Ar clibisho pr 1 

^' *Jemm(ngen 




Strutlieis, S..r>oss& Oo., Eugr's. and Pr's, N.Y. 



NAPLES. 



of these Norman sovereigns ended in 1189. 
Constance, through her marriage with the 
Emperor Henry VI., brought it to the Ho- 
henstaufen, who held the kingdom until 1265, 
when the pope gave it as a fief to Charles of An- 
jou, brother of Louis IX. of France. Charles' 
oppressive rule led to a revolt of his island 
subjects, and to the great massacre known as 
the Sicilian Vespers. 

Sicily now passed to a branch of the House 
of Aragon, but the House of Anjou retained 
Naples down to the reign of Queen Joan I., who 
was dethroned in 1381 by Charles of Durazzo, 
her heir-presumptive. She had previously, 
however, called in from France her cousin 
Louis, Duke of Anjou, brother of the French 
king, Charles V., and his son, after the assas- 
sination of Charles of Durazzo, in Hungary, 
in 1385, actually ascended the Neapolitan 
throne with the title of Louis II. 

The reign, however, of this second House of 



Anjou was but short. Louis II. was driven 
out the same year by Ladislaus, son of Charles 
of Durazzo, who in spite of all the efforts of 
Louis, succeeded in retaining the sovereignty 
till his death in 1414. He was succeeded by his 
sister, Joan 11., who, though twice married, re- 
mained childless. She first adopted Alfonso V. 
of Aragon and then Louis III. of Anjou. The 
death of Louis in 1434, followed by that of 
Queen Joan (February, 1435) seemed to leave 
the way clear for Alfonso V. But on her 
death-bed Queen Joan had bequeathed her 
crown to Rene, Duke of Lorraine, Louis IIL's 
next brother. After a fierce struggle, Alfonso 
gained the Neapolitan throne in 1442, which 
he ascended under the title of Alfonso I. On 
his death (1458) he left Naples to his natural 
son Ferdinand, but declared his brother John, 
King of Navarre, heir to Aragon and its de^ 
pendencies. 



107 



MODERN HISTORY, 



THE AGE OF THE GREAT DISCOVERIES. 



GENERAL CHARACTER. 

Consolidation of the Monarchies. — The 
great monarchies of Western Christendom 
had finally emerged from the feudal chaos. 
They had consolidated their resources and ma- 
tured their strength. They stood prepared for 
contests on a grander scale, for the exhibition 
of more sustained energy, and for the realiza- 
tion of more systematic schemes of aggran- 
dizement than had been witnessed since the 
times of the Roman Empire. 

Spain swept the last relics of her old Moor- 
ish conquerors from her soil and united the 
sceptres of her various kingdoms under the 
sway of a single dynasty. France was ready 
to employ, in brilliant schemes of foreign con- 
quest, those long-discordant energies and long- 
divided resources which Louis XI. had brought 
beneath the sole authority of the crown. In 
England and in the Burgundian lands, similar 
developments of matured and concentrated 
power had taken place. 

The Great Discoveries. — While the arts 
which enrich and adorn nations had received 
in Christendom, toward the close of the fif- 
teenth century, an almost unprecedented and 
unequalled impulse, the art of war had been 
improved there even in a higher degree. Per- 
manent armies, comprising large bodies of 
well-armed and well trained infantry, were now 
employed. The manufacture and the use of 
firearms, especially of artillery, were better 
understood and more generally practiced, and 
a school of skilful as well as daring command- 
ers had arisen, trained in the wars and on the 
model of the Great Captain, Consalvo of Cor- 
dova. All these things were of a nature calcu- 
lated to waken a more far-reaching and a more 
enduring heroism among the Christian nations, 
and to make them more formidable to their 
Mohammedan rivals. The great maritime dis- 
coveries, the revival of classical learning, the 
splendid dawnings of new literatures, the im- 
pulse given by the art of printing to enlighten- 
ment, discussion, and free inquiry, all tended 
to multiply and to elevate the leading spirits 



of Christendom, to render them daring in as- 
piration, and patient of difficulty and of suffer- 
ing in performance. 

The Religious Revival. — Religious zeal 
had again become fervent in that age, and the 
advancement of the Cross was the ultimate 
purpose of the toils of the mariner, the philos- 
opher, and the student, as well as of the states- 
man and soldier. The hope that the treasures 
to be derived from his voyages would serve to 
rescue the Holy Land from the infidels was 
ever present to the mind of Columbus amid his 
labors and his sufferings, and amid the perils 
of the unknown deep ; even as Charles VIII., 
amid his marches and battle-fields between the 
Alps and Naples, still cherished the thought of 
proceeding from conquered Italy to the rescue 
of Constantinople from the Turks. 

THE MARITIME DISCOVERIES. (Plate LVIII). 

The Unveiling of the Western Coast of 
Africa. — Portugal led the way among Euro- 
pean states to conquest and colonization out 
of Europe. Fifty years of conquest (1415- 
147 1) gave to Portugal her kingdom of " Al- 
garve beyond the Sea," which led to the dis- 
covery of the whole coast of the African Con- 
tinent, and to the growth of a vast Portuguese 
dominion in various parts of the world. The 
Canary Islands had been discovered in 1344. 
But Cape Nun (Not), which lies on the African 
coast opposite the Canaries, was long consid- 
ered an impassable boundary, until the Portu- 
guese succeeded in doubling it (141 2) and 
reaching Cape Bojador. Little by little, ad- 
venturous captains coasted farther and farther, 
until the Cape Verde Islands were found ; 
then the Gold Coast, the island of Fernando 
Po, the River Congo, and at last, in 1487, Bar- 
tolomeo Diaz doubled the Cape of Storms, the 
southern boundary of Africa ; and as the coast 
beyond was ascertained to trend to the north- 
east, the prospect of success seemed now so 
clear that King John II. renamed this head- 
land the " Cape of Good Hope." It took 
seventy years of exploration to trace the Afri- 



108 



COLUMBUS. 



can coast line of 6,000 miles from Cape Nun to 
the Cape of Good Hope. Most of the discov- 
eries were due to the untiring energy of Henry 
the Navigator (1394-1460), fourth son of King 
John I. He passed the greater part of his 
life at Segres, near Cape St. Vincent, whence, 
with his eyes fixed on the southern seas, he di- 
rected the adventurous pilots who were the 
first to visit those unknown shores. 

The Portuguese in India. (Plate LVH.)— 
Eleven years after Diaz (1498), Vasco de Gama 
arrived at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, and 
returned to Portugal the next year, bringing 
home a rich cargo of the various products of 
the country. A new expedition soon followed 
on the heels of the first, under the orders of 
Alvarez Cabral. After passing Cape Verde, 
steering westward, he arrived off the coast of 
Brazil. Having taken possession of that 
country for the crown of Portugal, he contin- 
ued his journey to India. The ability of 
Cabral, and of Almeida, the first Portuguese 
viceroy in India, laid the foundations of a 
brilliant colonial empire in India, the princi- 
pal founder of which, however, was the brave 
Albuquerque. He took, at the entrance of 
the Persian Gulf, Ormuz, the most brilliant 
and polished town in Asia (1507). He made 
Goa the headquarters of the Portuguese es- 
tablishment in India (15 10). Finally his occu- 
pation of Malacca and Ceylon gave the Por- 
tuguese the dominion over the vast ocean of 
which the northern boundary is the Gulf of 
Bengal. But the conqueror died in poverty 
and disgrace at Goa, and with him disappeared 
all justice and humanity among the Portu- 
guese. 

First Journey of Columbus. — While the 
Portuguese were making this progress in 
eastern navigation, the Spaniards had made 
still more brilliant and striking discoveries in 
a new hemisphere. 

Columbus (Christobal Colon, 1436-1506), 
conceived that something still greater might 
be effected. His original idea and principal 
purpose were to reverse the Portuguese meth- 
od, and to seek a passage to India by sailing 
westward. 

Shortly after the conquest of Granada by 
the Spanish sovereigns in 1492, Columbus, 
after many tedious years of suspense, at length 
succeeded in gaining for his scheme the sanc- 
tion and assistance of Queen Isabella. The 
Spanish court, however, was poor ; but Martin 
Pinzon, a wealthy ship-owner and experienced 
navigator of Palos, not only furnished one of 
the vessels required for the expedition, but 
also engaged personally, with his two brothers, 
to accompany it. Columbus received at length 
a patent from the court, and sailed on August 



3, 1492, from the port of Palos, in Andalusia, 
with three small vessels and the empty title of 
admiral. From the Canaries, where he an- 
chored, he took only thirty-three days to dis- 
cover the first American island (Friday, Oc- 
tober 12, 1492). This proved to be one of the 
Bahama Islands, called by the natives Guana- 
hani. He took possession of the land in the 
name of Isabella, Queen of Castile and Leon, 
giving to the island the name San Salvador. 

In his further searches he discovered the 
large and important islands of Cuba (which 
he called Juanna), and Hayti (Espanola, St. 
Domingo). The loss, however, of his largest 
ship, and other events, compelled Columbus 
to return to Europe. 

Ferdinand and Isabella were greatly sur- 
prised at seeing him return, after seven months 
(March 15), with Americans from Hayti, as 
well as some of the curiosities of the country, 
especially gold, with which he presented 
them. 

Subsequent Voyages. — They were readily 
induced by the success of the first voyage to 
fit out a second expedition. A fleet of seven- 
teen ships was prepared, reckoned to carry 
1,500 persons, with all the means and appli- 
ances necessary for colonizing. On this 
second voyage he discovered the Lesser Antil- 
les (inhabited by Caribs^ which Columbus 
misunderstood Canibs, whence Cannibals), and 
the Island of Jamaica. 

On his third voyage (May, 1498, Nov., 1500), 
he first sighted the continent (August i, 1498), 
ten degrees beyond the equator, and the coast 
on which was founded Carthagena (1533). The 
success of Columbus stimulated other naviga- 
tors to emulate his voyages. One of the most 
eminent of those who followed in his track was 
AmerigoVespucci, a learned Florentine (145 1- 
15 1 2) who participated in two Portuguese 
voyages to South America, entered the service 
of Castile in 1505, and filled the position of 
Royal Pilot from 1508 until his death, a post 
in which he rendered important services to 
science. The new world was called after him, 
not by him, America. The originator of this 
name was Martin Waltzemliller (Hylacomylus), 
from Freiburg, in the Breisgau, professor at 
St. Die, in Lorraine (1507). The name of 
America spread at first only in Germany and 
Switzerland, and did not come into general 
use until the close of the sixteenth century. 

Pre-Columbian Voyages to North America. See page 167. 

Note. — The chief claimants for the honor of having been 
the first landing place of Columbus are Cat's Island, Turk's 
Island, Watling's Island, and Samana. The latter claim was 
first advanced and ably advocated by Captain G. V. Fox, in 
his " Attempt to Solve the Problem of the First Landing 
Place of Columbus in the New World. " Washington, 1882. 
(United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.) 



109 



THE FRANCO-SPANISH STRUGGLE FOR THE SUPREMACY IN ITALY, 



THE INVASION OF ITALY BY CHARLES 
VIII. 

Milan and Naples. — When the line of the 
Visconti ended (1447), their tyranny was con- 
tinued by Francesco Sforza, the son of a poor 
soldier of adventure, who had raised himself 
by his military genius and had married Bianca, 
the illegitimate daughter of the last Visconti. 
On his death Francesco (1465) left two 
sons, Galeazzo Maria and Ludovico II Moro, 
both of whom were destined to play a promi- 
nent part in history. Galeazzo Maria, disso- 
lute, vicious, and cruel to the core, was mur- 
dered by his injured subjects (1476). His son 
Giovanni Galeazzo, aged eight, would, in course 
of time, have succeeded to the duchy had it 
not been for the ambition of his uncle. Ludo- 
vico contrived to name himself as regent for 
his nephew, whom he kept, long after he had 
come of age, in a kind of honorable prison. 
Virtual master of Milan, but without a legal 
title to the throne, recognized in his authority 
by the Italian powers and holding it from day 
to day by craft and fraud, Ludovico at last 
found his situation untenable. A slight, and 
to all appearances insignificant incident, con- 
verted his apprehension of danger into panic. 
It was customary for the States of Italy to 
congratulate a new pope on his election by 
their ambassadors, and this ceremony had now 
(1492) to be performed for Pope Alexander 
VI. (Roderigo Borgia). Ludovico proposed 
that his envoys should go to Rome together 
with those of Venice, Naples, and Florence. 
But Piero de Medici, who had just succeeded 
to his father Lorenzo, contrived that Ludo- 
vico's proposal should be rejected both by 
Florence and the King of Naples. Ludovico, 
seeing in this repulse a menace to his own 
usurped authority, turned in his anxiety to 
France, and advised the young King Charles 
VIII. to make good his claim upon Naples. 
For a French invasion of Naples would tie the 
hands of his natural foe, the aged King Ferdi- 
nand, whose granddaughter, Isabella of Ara- 
gon, had married Giovanni Galeazzo and was 
now the rightful Duchess of Milan. 

For Isabella, though aware of her husband's 
incapacity, considered herself at least entitled 
to rule in his place, and had frequently com- 
plained of the bondage in which she was held 
to her grandfather Ferdinand, who already, 
after remonstrating in vain with Ludovico, 
had threatened to interfere. 

The March to Naples.— Charles VIII. 
w^as young, light-brained, romantic, and ruled 



hy parve?ius, who had an interest in disturbing 
the old order of the monarchy. He lent a 
willing ear to Ludovico's invitation, backed as 
this was by the eloquence and passion of nu- 
merous Italian refugees and exiles. Against 
the advice of his more prudent counsellors, 
he taxed all the resources of his kingdom, and 
concluded treaties on disadvantageous terms 
with England, Germany, and Spain, in order 
that he might be able to concentrate all his 
attention upon the Italian expedition. 

On March i, 1494, Charles was with his 
army at Lyons. Early in September he had 
crossed the pass of Mount Genevre, and pass- 
ing through Susa and Turin was met at Asti 
by Ludovico Sforza. At the approach of the 
French the old governments of Italy crumbled 
away of themselves. Pisa shook off the yoke 
of the Florentines, Florence that of the Med- 
ici. Savonarola received Charles VIII. as 
" the ScoM'ge of God " sent to punish the sins 
of Italy. The new King of Naples, Alfonso 
II. (Ferdinand having died January 25, 1494) 
had abdicated and taken refuge in a convent 
in Sicily, leaving his kingdom to his son Ferdi- 
nand II., hardly twenty-five years old. 

This young sovereign was abandoned by his 
troops at San Germano, and was forced to re- 
tire with fifteen vessels to Sicily. Charles 
now entered Naples (February 22, 1495) amid 
the acclamations of the populace. But the 
very facility of Charles' success was fatal to 
its permanence. The Italians became objects 
of contempt to him and his young courtiers. 
He alienated the hearts even of those Neapol- 
itan nobles who had favored his cause, by 
depriving them of their offices. He appointed 
French governors to all the towns and for- 
tresses, and thus induced several places to re- 
sume the standard of Aragon. At the end of 
three months the Neapolitans were tired of the 
French but still afraid to attack them. 

The Retreat. — No sooner, however, was 
Charles installed in Naples than the States of 
Italy began to combine against him. Ludo- 
vico Sforza had availed himself of the general 
confusion consequent upon the first appear- 
ance of the French, to poison his nephew. 
He was, therefore, now the titular, as wel'l as 
virtual, lord of Milan. So far, he had 
achieved what he desired, and had no further 
need of Charles. The overtures he now made 
to the Venetians and the pope terminated in 
a league between these powers for the expul- 
sion of the French from Italy. Germany and 
Spain entered into the same alliance. After 



110 



INVASIONS OF ITALY BY LOUIS XII. 



a stay of only fifty days in his new capital, 
the French king hurried northward, leaving 
ii,ooo men under Gilbert de Montpensier to 
guard Naples. 

Moving quickly through the Papal States 
and Tuscany, he engaged his troops in the 
passes of the Apennines near Pontremoli, and 
on July 5, 1495, took up his quarters in the 
village of Fornovo. There he encountered the 
army of the Confederates, which was 40,000 
strong, while the French numbered only 9,000. 
After in vain demanding a passage they forced 
one, and the enemy's army was put to flight 
by a few charges of cavalry (July 6th). The 
king then returned triumphantly to France, 
having justified all his imprudence by a single 
victory. On the day after the battle of For- 
novo, the French were driven from Naples, 
while . Ferdinand II. re-entered his capital 
amid the acclamations of the multitude. He 
died, .however, soon afterward (September 7, 
1496), and was succeeded without opposition 
by his uncle, Frederick II., a popular and able 
prince. Thus, before the close of 1496, ail 
trace of Charles' rapid conquest had disap- 
peared. 

End of Charles VIII. — A remarkable 
change had been observed in the conduct of 
Charles VIII. on his return to France. He 
seemed a sadder but a wiser man. His ex- 
pedition to Italy had inspired him with a cer- 
tain degree of taste, which he displayed at the 
Castle of Amboise, where he took up his resi- 
dence early in 1498. Here he began to build 
on a large scale, and employed sculptors and 
painters, whom he had brought with him from 
Naples — the first indication of the introduc- 
tion of Italian art into France. 

He was meditating another expedition into 
Italy, and being sensible of his former mistake, 
he resolved to take measures for assuring a 
permanent conquest. But he died suddenly 
(April 7, 1498). With Charles VIII. ended 
the direct line of the House of Valois, which 
had occupied the French throne since 1327. 

THE INVASIONS OF ITALY BY LOUIS XII. 

Louis XII. and France. — The crown was 
now transferred to the collateral branch of 
Orleans, and Louis, Duke of Orleans, descended 
from the second son of Charles V., and his 
consort, V^alentina Vlsconti, of the ducal house 
of Milan, succeeded Charles VIII., with the 
title of Louis XII. The new king, feeble 
both in body and mind, was one of those char- 
acters to which the absence of strong passions 
and opinions lends the appearance of good 
nature, and even of virtue. He was naturally 
formed to be governed, and with him ascended 



the throne a prelate who had long been his 
director, George d'Amboise, Archbishop of 
Rouen. The views of both were directed to- 
ward Italy. The king's heart was set on the 
conquest of Milan and the recovery of Naples, 
the Archbishop wanted to be pope, and his 
best chance of attaining that dignity lay in the- 
success of his master's project. But for this 
success it was absolutely necessary that France 
should be contented and quiet ; and the domes- 
tic government of Louis XII. was accordingly 
mild and equitable. 

The higher classes were propitiated by 
favors, the middle classes were conciliated by 
some useful reforms in the administration of 
justice, and the whole nation was kept loyal 
by a government founded on order and econ- 
omy. 

The Second Invasion of Italy.— As soon 
as his marriage with Anne of Brittany, widow 
of Charles VIII. (January 7, 1499), had secured 
for him the possession of that duchy, Louis 
invaded the Milanese in concert with the 
Venetians. Both the hostile armies were 
partly composed of Swiss. Those who be- 
longed to the troops of Milan would not fight 
against the flag of their canton, which they 
saw in the army of the King of France, and 
abandoned Ludovico II Moro at Novara (April 
5, 1500). But on their way back to their 
mountains they took possession of Bellinzona, 
which Louis XII. was obliged to give up to 
them, and it became in their hands the key oi 
Lombardy. 

Ludovico, taken prisoner, was carried into 
France. Louis XII. caused him to be con- 
fined in the great tower of Loches, where he 
was shut up in an iron cage eight feet long 
and six broad. It was only toward the close 
of his life, which was prolonged ten years, that 
the hardship of his captivity was mitigated, 
and the whole castle laid open to him. 

Thus ended miserably Ludovico II Moro, one 
of the ablest rulers of his time. Milan, in his 
hands, had become the city which it is at pres- 
ent, and it w^as he who completed the admir- 
able network of Milanese irrigation, by mak- 
ing the gigantic canal which connects its 
rivers. Leonardo da Vinci, the loftiest and 
most universal genius of his age, chose Ludo- 
vico for his master, and 'quitted Florence to 
live at Milan. 

Louis XII. and Ferdinand the Catholic. 
— Having subdued Milan, Louis XII., who 
could not hope to conquer the Kingdam of 
Naples against the will of Ferdinand the 
Catholic, shared it with him by means of a 
secret treaty (Treaty of Granada, November 
II, 1500). Naples, the Terra di Lavoro, and 
the Abruzzi were assigned to Louis, with the 



111 



LOUIS XII. AND POPE JULIUS II. 



title of King of Naples and Jerusalem, while 
Ferdinand was to have Calabria and Apulia, 
with the title of Duke. King Frederick II. of 
Naples, alarmed at the French preparations, 
had called Ferdinand the Catholic to his assist- 
ance, and when he had opened his principal 
fortresses to Consalvo de Cordova the treaty 
of partition was disclosed to him (1501). Fred- 
erick, disgusted with Ferdinand's traitorous 
conduct, surrendered himself to Louis XII,, 
and in October, 150 1, sailed for. France, where 
he died in exile in 1504. 

This odious conquest of the Neapolitan 
kingdom was productive only of war. The 
two nations (French and Spaniards) quarrelled 
for the proceeds of the tax raised on the herds 
that travelled in the spring from Apulia to 
the Abruzzi, which was the most certain por- 
tion of the Neapolitan revenue. Ferdinand 
amused Louis XII. by a treaty until he had 
sent sufficient reinforcements to Consalvo, 
who was blockaded in Barletta. 

Consalvo (leaving Barletta) suddenly re- 
sumed the offensive with extraordinary vigor 
and rapidity, and within a week two de- 
cisive battles were fought. On April 21, 
1503, the Spanish Captain Andrades defeated 
Stuart d'Aubigny at Seminara, in Calabria, and 
compelled him to retire into the fortress of 
Angitola, where he soon afterward surren- 
dered. On April 28th, the Great Captain (Con- 
salvo) himself defeated the Duke of Ne- 
mours at Cerignola, near Barletta, when the 
French army was almost destroyed. Most of the 
Neapolitan towns, includingthe capital, opened 
their gates to the conqueror (May 14th). By the 
end of July, 1503, the French had completely 
evacuated the Neapolitan territory, which thus 
fell into Ferdinand's possession. 

Louis XII. and Pope Julius II. — Louis 
XII., however, was still master of a large por- 
tion of Italy ; sovereign of the Milanese, and 
lord of Genoa, the ally and mainstay of Flor- 
ence and of Pope Alexander VI., his influence 
spread over Tuscany, the Romagna, and the 
Roman States. Bijt the death of Alexander 
VI. (August 18, 1503), and the ruin of his son 
were as fatal to him as the defeat at Cerig- 
nola. 

The place vacated by Alexander VI. was 
soon occupied by the patriotic Julius II. 
(1503-15 13), who wished to make the Papal 
States the dominating realm of -Italy, to de- 
liver the whole peninsula from the barbarians 
(French and Spaniards), and to make the Swiss 
the guardians of Italian liberty. 

Employing spiritual and temporal arms by 
turns, the intrepid pontiff spent his life in the 
execution of these inconsistent projects ; for the 
barbarians could be driven out only by means of 



Venice, and Venice had to be lowered to raise 
the Church to the rank of the preponderating 
power in Italy. For the latter purpose the 
League of Cambray was formed (December 10, 
1508). The object of this League, which was 
the first great combination since the time of 
the Crusades, of several leading European 
powers for a common object, is clearly stated 
in the preamble of the treaty itself. The pre- 
amble states that the Emperor (Maximilian) 
and the King of France having, at the solici- 
tation of Pope Julius II., allied themselves in 
order to make ivar on the Turks, had first re- 
solved to put an end to the rapine, losses, and 
injuries caused by the Venetians, not only to 
the Holy Apostolic See, but also to the Holy 
Roman Empire, and many other princes ; and 
to extinguish, as a common devouring fire, the 
insatiable cupidity and thirst of domination of 
the Venetians. In the spring of 1509 Louis 
XII. declared war against Venice, and in April 
he crossed the Alps. He had crossed the 
Adda and was marching along its banks, when 
at a bend of the river he suddenly found him- 
self in presence of the Venetian army. A 
battle ensued (Agnadello, May 14, 1509), in 
which the Venetian army was annihilated. 
This victory enabled Louis to take possession 
of all the territory assigned him by the Treaty 
of Cambray, namely, as far as the River Mincio. 
He therefore halted his victorious army and 
left the emperor to achieve his part by re- 
ducing the places east of that boundary. The 
emperor, however, was less successful. The 
Venetians beat the Marquis of Mantua, retook 
Padua, and defended it against the emperor, 
who laid siege to it with 40,000 men (Septem- 
ber, T409). The King of Naples and the pope, 
whose pretensions were satisfied, made peace 
with Venice, and Julius II., who was now only 
bent upon driving out the barbarians from 
Italy, turned his impetuous policy against the 
French. 

The projects of the pope were only too well 
served by the ill-conceived economy of Louis 
XII., which had alienated the Swiss. They 
now entered into an alliance with the pope, 
engaging not to form any connection that 
might be hurtful to Rome, and to oppose all 
the pope's enemies. » 

A HOLY LEAGUE was now formcd (October 4, 
15 11) by the pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and 
the Venetians. Its professed object was the 
protection of the Church, but its real aim was 
the expulsion of the French from Italy. There 
were two other parties to this League, who, 
for the present, remained in the background : 
the Emperor Maximilian and Henry VIII. of 
England. The army of the LLoly League was 
to be commanded by Don Raymond de Car- 



112 



MARIGNANO. 



dona, Viceroy of Naples, a man of polished and 
agreeable manners, but of no, military experi- 
ence, whom the rough old pope nicknamed 
Lady Cardona. The French were commanded 
by the Viceroy of Milan, Gaston de Foix, the 
^^ thimderbolt of war y In a short career of two 
months, this Gaston revealed to France the 
true secret of its military power — the capacity 
of its infantry to perform marches of extraor- 
dinary rapidity. First he intimidated or gained 
over the Swiss and drove them back into their 
mountains, then he raised the siege of Bologna, 
and penetrated into the town with his army, 
favored by a violent snowstorm (February 7, 
15 1 2). On February i8th he was before 
Brescia, which had been retaken by tlie Vene- 
tians, and on the 19th he had carried the town, 
which was abandoned for seven days to the fury 
of the soldiers. Gaston, on his return to the 
Romagna, attacked Ravenna, to force the army 
of Spain and the pope to give battle (April 
nth). The Spanish infantry, after sustaining 
tlie day with obstinate courage, slowly retired. 

Gaston, maddened at the carnage which they 
had made, and forgetting his duty as general, 
charged them at the head of a few men-at- 
arms, when he was struck from his horse by a 
Spanish soldier. In vain his cousin Lautrec 
exclaimed : ^'- Spare his life ^ it is our Viceroy^ your 
Queen s brother ! " Gaston fell, pierced with 
twenty wounds, and Lautrec shared the same 
fate. 

His victory was indeed complete, but it was 
more than counterbalanced by his death. 

At the end of June, 15 12, less than three 
months after the victory at Ravenna, Louis 
XII. held in the Milanese little more than 
Brescia, Peschiera, and Crema, while Maximil- 
ian Sforza, eldest son of Ludovico II Moro, 
was restored to the ducal throne of Milan. 

Pope Julius II. survived his triumph over 
the French but a few months. He died Feb- 
ruary 21, 1513. He must be regarded as the 
founder of the Papal States. His idea of mak- 
ing the papacy the instrument of Italian lib- 
eration was a grand one, and made him worthy 
of imperishable glory. As a ruler all his ideas 
were on a gigantic scale. He resumed the 
building of St. Peter's, in which, and other ar- 
chitectural designs, he found in Michael An- 
gelo a genius of kindred vastness to assist him. 
He was succeeded in the papacy by Leo X. 
(till 1521). 

Close of the Reign of Louis XII. — Hence- 
forth nothing succeeded with Louis XII. The 
Sforzas remained in Milan, the Medici re- 
turned to Florence. The king's army was 
beaten by the Swiss at Novara (June 6, 1513), 
and by the English at Guinegate (August 17, 
15 13), known as the Battle of the Spurs, be- 



cause the French used their spurs more than 
their swords. France, attacked in front by the 
Spaniards and the Sw^iss, in the rear b-y the 
English, saw her two allies, Scotland and Na- 
varre, beaten (at Flodden Field) or despoiled. 
The war had no longer an object. Louis XII. 
concluded a truce with Ferdinand at Orthez 
(April I, 15 13), by which he sacrificed his ally 
Jean d'Albert, King of Navarre, whose domin- 
ions were now reduced to the little territory of 
Beam. But he still retained the royal title of 
Navarre. In the following year Henry VIII. 
of England, deserted by his allies, made peace 
with France (August 7, 15 14). Louis agreed 
to pay Henry a million of crowns and to marry 
Mary, Henry's sister. Three months after the 
marriage, January i, 15 15, Louis died; his 
young widow afterward became the wife of 
Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. 

THE INVASIONS OF ITALY BY FRANCIS I. 

Marignano. — While Europe believed 
France to be exhausted, and as it were to 
have grown old with Louis XII., she suddenly 
displayed unexpected resources under the 
young Francis I. This Francis had received 
from nature all the gifts that can adorn a 
man : he was handsome and tall and strong ; 
his armor, preserved in the Louvre, is that of a 
man six feet high ; his eyes were brilliant and 
soft, his smile was gracious, his manners were 
winning. He was the son of Louis XII.'s first 
cousin, Charles d'Angouleme, and husband of 
his daughter, Claude. The Italian claims of 
Louis XH., derived from his grandmother, 
Vaientina Visconti, also descended in due 
order, upon her great-grandson, Francis I., 
who after the death of his father-in-law, as- 
sumed the title of Duke of Milan, and deter- 
mined to carry out Louis' projected enterprise 
upon that duchy. The Swiss, who thought 
that they held all the passes of the Alps, 
heard with astonishment that the French 
army had defiled through the valley of the 
Argentiere. They advanced as far as Marig- 
nano, negotiating as they marched. There 
the Swiss, whom they thought they had won 
over, fell upon the French and succeeded in 
separating the divisions of the royal army ; 
but during the night the French rallied, and 
the battle recommenced at daybreak more 
furiously than ever. At length the Swiss 
heard the war-cry of the Venetians, who were 
allies of France — Marco! Marco! Believing 
that the whole of the Italian army was coming, 
they closed their ranks and fell back with 
such an air of defiance that the enemy durst 
not pursue them, leaving only 1,500 men to 
hold the citadel of Milan for Sforza. Wken 



113 



THE CONSTABLE OF BOURBOX — PAVIA. 



this was taken (October 4th) Sforza abdicated 
the duchy in favor of Francis I. He retired 
into France, where a pension of 30,000 crowns 
was assigned to him. He died at Paris in 

1530- 
The Constable of Bourbon. — No one had 

more contributed to the victory of Marignano 
than Charles, the Constable of Bourbon, Count 
of Montpensier, and Dauphin of Auvergne, 
who held, by virtue of his wife Susanne; a 
granddaughter of Louis XI., the duchy of 
Bourbon, and the counties of Clermont, La 
Marche, and many other domains. He was 
not only the richest lord in Christendom, but 
cherished even the hope of succeeding to the 
French crown in case of the failure of heirs 
to Francis L His services at the Battle of 
Marignano had been so important that PVancis 
rewarded him with the government of the 
Milanese. Cold, haughty, and taciturn, Bour- 
bon's temper was the very reverse of that of 
Francis, who never trusted him entirely, and 
soon removed him from the government of 
Milan. From this time the king seems to have 
studiously heaped both insults and injuries on 
Bourbon. On the death of his wife (April 28, 
15 21) the Queen-mother, Louise of Savoy, who 
had wanted to marry the constable and had 
been refused by him, resolved to ruin him. 
She disputed with him his rich inheritance. 
As daughter of Margaret, sister of Duke Peter 
H. of Bourbon, she represented the eldest 
branch of the Bourbons, but through the 
female line. She obtained permission from 
her son, King Francis, that the property 
should be provisionally sequestered. The 
constable, exasperated, resolved to pass over 
to the emperor (1523). 

Pavia. — Since 15 21 there was war between 
Charles V. and Francis I. Charles had ad- 
vanced claims to Milan and the Duchy of Bur- 
gundy. Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and 
Naples. The French had been driven in 1522 
from Milan, which was then governed by 
Francesco Sforza (brother of the exiled Maxi- 
milian). While Francis was preparing to cross 
into Italy, Bourbon promised Charles V. to 
attack Burgundy as soon as the king had 
crossed the Alps, and to rouse into revolt five 
provinces of which he believed himself master. 
He was to be rewarded w^ith the hand of the 
emperor's sister Eleanor, and the kingdom of 
Provence was to be re-established in his favor. 
France, partitioned between Spain and Eng- 
land, would have ceased to exist as a nation. 
But the conspiracy was discovered before 
Francis had crossed the Alps, and the con- 
stable was obliged to flee to Germany, whence 
he passed through Tyrol to Mantua, whose 
marquis was his first cousin. Instead of five 



or six provinces and a great party, Bourbon 
could now offer Charles only his talents, his 
valor, and his despair. He soon perceived 
that the ardor of friendship was gradually 
succeeded, in the conduct of the emperor, by 
the coldness of protection, and he felt that he 
could not press for the completion of the 
treaty and the hand of Eleanor till he had 
achieved something that might deserve it. 
On January 16, 1524, he was declared a traitor 
by Francis ; his lands were confiscated, and 
the coat of arms upon his palace wall was be- 
smeared witli saffron in token of his disgrace. 

In the spring of 1524 Bourbon, with the 
title of Lieutenant-General of the Emperor in 
Italy, joined the imperial army at Milan, and 
in June he led 18,000 men by the Corniche 
Road into Provence. He had thought that on 
his first appearance in France his vassals 
would flock to serve with him under the for- 
eign standard. But not one came. The im- 
perialists were driven back from the walls of 
Marseilles, and they saved their exhausted 
army only by a retreat which resembled a 
flight. Instead of overpowering them in 
Provence the king chose to anticipate them in 
Italy. 

In spite of the approaching winter Francis 
resolved to cross the Alps, and sat down be- 
fore Pavia, the siege of which was obstinately 
maintained, the French army being strongly 
posted in a fortified camp in the park of 
Mirabella, on the west bank of the Ticino. 
Here they were attacked by the Imperialists 
under Bourbon and Pescara. The French 
army was completely annihilated, the Swiss 
fled, the lance-knights w^ere crushed. Francis 
defended himself on foot ; his horse had been 
killed under him ; his armor, which is still 
in existence, was riddled by balls and thrusts of 
pikes. Happily one of the French nobles who 
had followed Bourbon caught sight of him and 
saved him ; but he would not yield to a traitor ; 
he called the Viceroy of Naples, who received 
his sword on his knees. The celebrated la- 
conic letter to his mother, ''''Madam! all is lost 
but honor," is a literary invention. Francis by 
no means possessed so pregnant a style. 

On June 8, 1525, Francis sailed from 
Genoa, was landed at Alicante, and thence 
transferred to the fortress of Jativa(both in 
Valencia). Early in August he was brought 
to Madrid. 

The Sack of Rome. — Francis I. arrived in 
Spain, believing, from the movements of his 
own heart, that it would be enough for him to 
meet his Good Brother to be sent back honor- 
ably to his kingdom. Such was not the case. 
His captivity was of the most rigorous kind, 
which threw' him into a dangerous sickness. 



114 



THE PEACE OF CAMBRAY. 



It was only then, when Charles V. feared to 
lose his prisoner through death, and Francis I. 
had abdicated in favor of the Dauphin, that the 
emperor made up his mind to release him, af- 
ter forcing him to sign a shameful treaty (Jan- 
uary 14, 1526). 

The King of France renounced his preten- 
sions in Italy, promised to acl^nowledge the 
rights of Bourbon, to give up Burgundy, to 
yield his two sons as hostages, and to ally him- 
self by a double marriage to the family of 
Charles V. This treaty was never meant to 
be executed. Once more king it was easy for 
him to elude it. Francis caused the States of 
Burgundy to declare that he had no right to 
give up any portion of the French territory, 
and formed a league (League of Cognac) 
against the emperor, with the pope, the Vene- 
tians, and Sforza (May 22, 1526). 

Henry VIII. of England did not indeed 
join the league, but he did all in his power to 
forward it, and promised money. The Italians 
were in general enthusiastic in favor of this 
league. A confident of Pope Clement VII. 
wrote to a friend: " It is not a war that con- 
cerns a point of honor, a petty vengeance, or 
the preservation of a single city, but the deliv- 
erance or the eternal slavery of all Italy." 

The last Struggle for the Possession of 
Italy. — Although the Italian confederates 
were at first unsupported either by French 
troops or English gold, yet had they possessed 
an enterprising general they might easily have 
mastered the imperial army of 11,000 men 
while their own army was more than double. 
While the pope, the head of the league, was 
meditating the liberation of Italy, he was un- 
expectedly made a prisoner by one of his own 
cardinals, Pompeo Colonna, and only released 
by the Spanish commander, Hugo de Moncada, 
who dictated to him a truce for four months. 
The greater part of Italy continued a prey to 
the most hideous war that ever disfigured hu- 
manity. It was less a war than a long torture 
inflicted by a ferocious soldiery on an un- 
armed people. When the condition of affairs 
in Italy became known to the Germans, 14,000 
of their mercenaries crossed the Alps under 
George Frundsberg, a furious Lutheran, who 
wore around liis neck a gold chain, with w^hich, 
he said, he intended to strangle the pope. 
Bourbon led, or rather followed this army of 
robbers. Clement VII. dismissed his best 
troops on the approach of these bands, fancy- 
ing perhaps that Rome unarmed would inspire 
them with respect. On the morning of May 6, 
1527, Bourbon commenced the assault. Per- 
ceiving that his German infantry supported 
him feebly, he seized a ladder, and was scal- 
ing it, when a ball struck him in the back. 



Feeling that it was his death-blow, he ordered 
his men to cover his body with his cloak and 
thus conceal his fall. His soldiers avenged 
him only too amply. More than seven thou- 
sand Romans were massacred on the first day. 
Nothing was spared, neither convents, nor 
churches, nor even St. Peter's itself. The booty 
was immense. For centuries the wealth of Eu- 
rope had been flowing toward Rome, and it 
now became the prey of that brutal and needy 
soldiery which, in expectation of this hour, had 
so long borne with privations and misery. 

The Peace of Cambray. — Indignation 
reached its height in Europe when the sack of 
Rome and the captivity of the pope became 
known. Charles V. ordered prayers for the 
deliverance of the pope, who was more the 
prisoner of the imperial army than of the em- 
peror. Francis I. thought the moment favor- 
able for despatching to Italy the troops which 
a few months earlier would have saved Rome 
and Milan. Lautrec marched upon Naples, 
while the imperial generals negotiated with 
their troops to induce them to leave Rome. 
But Lautrec, as in the first wars, was not sup- 
plied with money. Pestilence consumed his 
army. However, nothing was lost as long as 
the communication by sea with France was 
preserved. But this was lost when Francis 
liad the imprudence to displease his admiral, 
Doria, the Genoese, whose engagement with 
France had just expired. He passed over 
with his fleet to the emperor, on condition 
that his country should be independent and 
once more rule over Liguria. 

In consequence of the defection of Doria, 
the French army, which had been almost ex- 
terminated by pestilence, could not be re-en- 
forced, and Naples was lost forever to France. 

Both parties, however, wished for peace. 
Charles V.'was alarmed by the progress of the 
ecclesiastical troubles and the invasion of the 
terrible Soliman, who sat down before Vienna. 
Francis I. exhausted, sought only to secure 
his own interests at the expense of his allies. 
He wanted to get back his children and to re- 
tain Burgundy. In 1529 a peace (called the 
Ladies' Peace, because it was negotiated by 
Louisa of Savoy, mother of Francis, and Mar- 
garet of Austria, aunt of Charles) was concluded 
at Cambray. Francis was released from his 
obligation to surrender Burgundy, and on the 
other hand renounced all his pretensions in 
Italy. Francis abandoned all his allies, w^hile 
Charles did not desert a single one, and ob- 
tained a pardon for the constable's family and 
adherents. 

Thus were virtually terminated the wars be- 
tween the French and the Spaniards for the 
possession of Italy. After a struggle of over 



115 



HENRY A'lII. 



thirty-six years, Italy had become in reality, ', 
if not in name, a Spanish province, and the | 
Spanish ascendency in Europe was secured. 
The great result of the Spanish conquest of 
Italy was that, when soon after the Church 
was reformed, the reformation was carried out 
in the Spanish spirit, and Spain became not 
only the temporal but the spiritual master of 
Western Europe. 

THE FIRST TUDORS IN ENGLAND. 

Henry VII. — The reign of Henry VII. 
gave to the English middle classes what they 
most needed, the protection of a firm govern- 
ment. But he roused great indignation by 
the extortionate injustice which has ever since 
been connected witli the names of his minis- 
ters, Empson and Dudley. Since little con- 
fidence could be placed in the future after so 
many revolutions, the first care of Henry VII. 
was to accumulate a treasure. Exaction of 
feudal dues, redemption of feudal services, 
fines, confiscations, every means seemed good 
to him for attaining his ends. He obtained 
money from his parliament to make war in 
France, he obtained subsidies from France not 
to make it, and \\\\x^ gained from his subjects by 
war and from his enemies by peace. He en- 
deavored also to support himself by alliances 
with more firmly established dynasties : lie 
gave his daughter Margarethato James IV. of 
Scotland, and obtained the hand of Catharina 
of Aragon for his son Arthur. In his reign 
navigation and manufactures made their first 
great start. It was he who equipped the Ve- 
netian, John Cabot, who discovered the coast 
of North America in 1497. 

Henry VIII. — To the father, who had won 
the crown on the battle-field, and who had 
maintained it as his own in the extremest 
dangers, succeeded a son full of life and en- 
ergy. Henry VIII., too, felt the need of 
being popular, like most princes on their 
accession ; he sacrificed the two chiefs of the 
fiscal commission, Empson and Dudley, to the 
universal hate. Without delay he married 
his brother's widow. In the ceremonies of 
her husband's coronation Catharine could ac- 
tually take part as queen. He was at that 
time an ardent Catholic, wrote against the 
heretics, and was always ready to take up 
arms to protect the pope, who constituted him 
the arbiter of the disputes arising out of the 
League of Cambray; and at Easter, 15 10, Julius 
sent him the golden rose, which the Roman 
court annually presents to the sov^ereign on 
whose assistance it most relies. 

When Louis XII. and Emperor Maximilian 
tried to oppose a council to the i^vQpe, Henry 



VIII. dissuaded the latter from it wnth a zeal 
full of unction. He drew him over, in fact, to 
his side ; they undertook a combined cam- 
paign against France, in which they won a bat- 
tle in the open field [Giiinegate, August 17, 
15 13) and conquered a great city (Tournay;. 
Aided by the English army, Ferdinand the 
Catholic then possessed liimself of Navarre, 
which was given up to him by the pope, as 
being taken when it was in league with an 
enemy of the Church. Louis' other ally, the 
Scotch King James IV., succumbed to Eng- 
land at Flodden (September 9, 15 13), and 
Henry might have raised a claim to Scotland 
like that of Ferdinand to Navarre, but he pre- 
ferred, as his sister Margaret became regent 
there, to strengthen the indirect influence of 
England over Scotland. 

The young king w^as especially guided by a 
young ecclesiastic, Thomas Wolsey, who since 
15 10 had a seat in the council. He co-operated 
in the revival of classical studies, which were 
just coming into notice at Oxford ; he had a 
feeling for the efforts of art, which was then 
attaining a higher estimation, and an inborn 
talent for architecture, to which England owes 
some w^onderful works (Cardinal's College, 
now Christ Church, Oxford ; the School at 
Ipswich, and Hampton Court). 

The king, too, loved building ; the present of 
a skilfully cut jewel could delight him ; and 
he sought honor in defending the scholastic 
dogmas against Luther's views ; in all this 
Wolsey seconded and supported him. Henry 
VIII. first felt himself to be really king when 
business was managed by a favorite thoroughly 
dependent on him, trusted by him, and in fact 
very capable. The king named him Arch^ 
bishop of York (15 14), the pope Cardinal Legate 
(15 1 7), so that the whole control of ecclesias- 
tical matters fell into his hands ; foreign affairs 
were peculiarly his own department. 

But having displeased the king in the matter 
of the divorce of Catharine of Aragon, he was 
(1529) deprived of all his dignities, and he died 
a broken-spirited man (1530), 

This divorce suit brought about the separa- 
tion of Henry VIII. fromthe Catholic Church. 
He threw off the authority of the pope simply 
because he w^as tired of a staid and elderly 
wife (Catharine of Aragon) and had fallen 
in love with a flighty young woman (Anne 
Boleyn). But the moment the thing was done 
he justified his acts to himself in reforming 
the Church according to the ideas of the bet- 
ter men around him. There was to be no 
change in the doctrine preached, but there 
was to be a change in the habits of those 
by whom it was preached. By placing him- 
self at the head of such a work Henry ren- 



116 



CHARLES Y. 



dered himself more despotic than he had 
been before : he became to be regarded as the 
impersonation of the commonwealth, and 
never was there man more representative of a 
people than was Henry VIII. of the England 
of his day. In him met the brutal passions of 
his subjects, with their dogged persistency, 



their love of show and splendor, their intel- 
lectual, moral, and religious tendencies. Low 
and high, coarse and cultured, mocking and 
serious, he had a side for all. He could speak 
to each rank and to each character in the 
name of England, because all England was in 
himself. 



THE SPANISH 



ASCENDENCY IN 

Plate XLII. 



WESTERN EUROPE. 



THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 

Consolidation of Spain. — On January 2, 
1492, Granada, then deemed the largest for- 
tified city in the world, and the capital of 
the remnant of the Moslem possessions in 
Spain, surrendered to their Catholic Majes- 
ties, Ferdinand and Isabella. Thus fell the 
Moslem rule in Spain, after it had lasted nearly 
seven centuries and a half. The tidings of 
the capture of Granada were received through- 
out Europe, and especially at Rome, with joy 
and thanksgiving, for the event was regarded as 
in some degree compensating for the occupa- 
tion of Constantinople by the Turks. By the 
conquest of Granada the whole of Spain, with 
the exception of Navarre, was consolidated 
into one great kingdom, and was thus prepared 
to take a leading part in those political affairs 
which were soon to engage the attention of 
Europe ; while the long wars by which the 
conquest had been achieved had served as a 
training-school for that redoubtable infantry 
and those famous captains who, for a consider- 
able period, rendered Spain the first military 
power in the world. 

Ancestry of Charles V. — During the six- 
teenth century Spain was the leading power 
in Europe. It was an ascendency which had 
been gained by unquestioned superiority in 
all the arts of policy and of war. Spanish di- 
plomacy and Spanish arms absolutely con- 
trolled the greater part of Western Europe. 
This union of the fairest portions of Europe, 
under the overlordship of Spain, had been 
brought about by a long series of prudent 
marriages. 

Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold, 
and heiress of the wealthy Netherlands, and 
the Counties of Burgundy and Charolais, had 
married Maximilian, the heir of all the Habs- 
burg possessions. Their only son, Philip, 
married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand (King 
of Aragon and Naples) and Isabella (Queen 
of Castile), hence heiress of the three king- 



doms and the American colonies. All these 
lands descended to Charles of Habsburg, the 
eldest son of Philip and Joanna. 

Imperial Election of 1519. — When the 
empire became vacant by the death of Maxi- 
milian I. (15 19), and the kings of France, Spain, 
and England demanded the imperial crown, 
the electors, fearing to impose on themselves 
a master, offered it to one of their own body — 
Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. This 
prince, however, showed himself worthy of his 
name, by inducing them to choose Charles of 
Habsburg. Of the three candidates, Charles 
was the most dangerous for German freedom, 
but he also was the most capable of defend- 
ing Germany against the Turks. Selim and 
Soliman revived at that time the fear which 
had been experienced by Europe in the days 
of Mohammed II. The ruler of Spain, Naples, 
and Austria could alone close the civilized 
world against the barbarians of Africa and 
Asia. 

With their candidature for the imperial 
crown, burst forth the inextinguishable rivalry 
between Francis I. and Charles V., who now 
followed up the Burgundian policy of Charles 
the Bold, systematically to weaken France. 
He drove her from Italy, seized on Milan, in 
addition to Naples, and this in conjunction 
with Pope Clement VII.," who needed the 
good-will of the emperor to assist him to re- 
press the rising doctrines of Luther. 

The Rise of Luther. — Martin Luther, an 
Augustine monk, and since 1508 professor at 
Wittenberg, had nailed upon the door of the 
Court Church of Wittenberg (October 31, 
15 1 7), his ninety-five theses against the misuse 
of indulgences. Summoned (15 18) to Augs- 
burg by Cardinal de Vio, of Gaeta (hence usu- 
ally called Cajetanus), Luther could not be 
induced to abjure, but appealed to the pope, 
who sent his chamberlain, Von Miltitz, to medi- 
ate. The result was the condemnation by 
Rome of forty-one articles in Luther's writings. 
Luther burned (1520) the papal bull and the 



117 



1521—1698 A. D. 



PLATE XLIII. 




THE peasants' WAR. 



canon law, and consequently was excommuni- 
cated. Summoned by the emperor to the 
Diet of Worms, he defended his doctrines be- 
fore the emperor. The ban of the empire 
being pronounced against him, he was carried 
to the Wartburg by the Elector of Saxony, and 
there protected. The Diet of Worms came to 
an end without having accomplished the work 
which Germany expected from it. No deci- 
sive steps had been taken to remedy the eccle- 
siastical grievances of which the princes com- 
plained. The grievances of the much enduring 
peasantry had not even been talked of. The 
friends of ecclesiastical reform as well as the 
peasants thought there was nothing left but 
revolution. 

The Peasants' War. — The oppressive cru- 
elty of the nobles, and the misinterpretation 
of Luther's doctrines concerning Christian lib- 
erty, occasioned the Peasants' War, which 
broke out in Suabia, in 1525, and spread rapid 
destruction over the Rhineland and Franconia 
as far as Saxony and Thuringia. The struggle 
extended finally into Styria and Carinthia, 
where there had been risings before, and lin- 
gered longest in the Tyrol. 

The failure of the peasants was inevitable, 
and the wild vigor with which they acted in the 
moments of their brief power did but add to the 
cruelty with which they were crushed and pun- 
ished when the tide of victory turned against 
them. More than 100,000 peasants perished. 

Luther, throughout the Peasants' War, which 
had grown up from the dragon's teeth that he 
himself had sown, sided with the ruling powers. 
He was firm as a rock in opposing the use of 
the sword against the civil power. For the 
reform he sought was by means of the civil 
power. His reformation was intended to be far 
more political than spiritual. In order to make 
himself and his cause solid with the princes, he 
publicly exhorted them to crush the rebellion. 

The poor peasants had thought that in Lu- 
ther (himself a peasant) they should have 
found a friend, but they were bitterly disap- 
pointed. He hounded on the princes in their 
work of blood. Thanks to this attitude of Lu- 
ther, the spread of the Reformation was not 
checked by the Peasants' War. It was also fav- 
ored by the fact that the emperor, after the 
Diet of Worms, liad left Germany and was oc- 
cupied with the war with Francis I. But after 
the Peace of Cambray the victorious emperor 
took a more decided position. The strict ex- 
ecution of the decree of the Diet of Worms, 
which had prohibited the promulgation of all 
new doctrines, was resolved upon. The Lu- 
theran princes, in the Second Diet at Speier, 
protested against this resolution, whence they 
were called Protestants. 



The Smalkaldic League. — The followers 
of Luther wished to be distinguished by that 
name from all the other enemies of Rome 
whose excesses would have damaged their 
cause : from the republican Zwinglians of 
Switzerland, odious both to princes and 
nobles ; and above all from the Anabaptists, 
proscribed as enemies of order and society. 
Their confession, softened by the learned and 
conciliatory Melanchthon, was nevertheless re- 
jected as heretical. They were summoned to 
renounce their errors on pain of being placed 
under the ban of the empire (Augsburg, 1530). 
Charles V. seemed even ready to use violence, 
and for a short time ordered the gates of Augs- 
burg to be closed. The diet had scarcely been 
dissolved, when the Protestant princes assem- 
bled at Smalkalden and there concluded a de- 
fensive league, by which they were to form a 
state within the state (153 1). They settled 
their contingents, they applied to the kings of 
France, England, and Denmark, and they held 
themselves ready for battle. 

Protestantism Saved by the Turks. — 
The Turks seemed charged with the task of 
again bringing the Germans together. The 
emperor heard that Soliman had just entered 
Hungary at the head of 300,000 men, while the 
pirate Chaireddin {Barbargssd) was keeping 
the whole of the Mediterranean in alarm. 
Charles V. hastened to offer to the Protestants 
to grant all their demands, especially tJie 
preservation of the secularized possessions of the 
Church, until the approaching council (Relig- 
ious Peace of Nuremberg, 1532). 

Greatness of Charles V.— The emperor 
hurried eastward to prevent Soliman from 
penetrating into Europe through the Styrian 
passes. The formidable aspect of the imperial 
army decided the sultan on retiring, who was 
not reassured until, leaving the narrow gorges 
of the Murr and the Drave, he re-entered the 
plain of Waradein. Charles now reigned over 
almost the whole of Western Europe, and 
guided at his will the policy and resources of 
his brother Ferdinand in Eastern Europe, who 
ruled, since 1526, over the wide lands of Bo- 
hemia, Hungary, and Austria. 

In the far west his soldiers conquered bound- 
less realms (Mexico, Peru), and it seemed as 
if he intended to revive the spirit of the Cru- 
sades when, in 1535, he took Tunis by assault 
and restored to freedom 20,000 Christian slaves. 
They were brought back to their homes at the 
expense of the emperor, and caused the name 
of Charles V. to be blessed throughout Eu- 
rope. 

Smalkaldic War. — When the long wars 
with Turks and French (inseparable allies) had 
been finally brought to an end by the Peace of 



118 



TROGRESS OF THE TURKS. 



Crespy (1544) Charles used all his energy to 
crush the independence of the estates of the 
empire in Germany, and to restore the unity 
of the Church, to which he was urged by Pope 
Paul III., who concluded an alliance with him, 
and promised money and troops. The Prot- 
estants, warned by the pope's imprudence, 
wiio proclaimed the war as a crusade, rose up 
under the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave 
of Hessia to the number of 80,000. Abandoned 
by France, England, and Denmark, who had 
excited them to war, they would have been, 
nevertheless, sufficiently strong, if they had re- 
mained united, but while they were pressing 
hard Charles V., who lay " intrenched behind 
the walls of Ingolstadt, young Maurice, Duke 
f)f Saxony w^ho had secretly been treating 
with him, betrayed the Protestant cause and 
invaded the states of his relative the elector. 
Charles V. had simply to overpower the scat- 
tered members of the league. As soon as the 
deaths of Henry VIII. (January 28, 1547), and 
of Francis I. (March 31, 1547), had deprived 
the Protestants of all hope of assistance, he 
marched against the elector of Saxony, and 
defeated him at Mlihlberg (April 24, 1547). 

Maurice of Saxony and Charles V. — 
While Maurice, who had been rewarded for 
his treason by the electorate, found himself 
the plaything of the emperor, he was stung 
to the quick by the circulation of numbers of 
.broad-sheets, in which he was called apostate 
and traitor. He wanted to redeem his first 
treason by a second. He concealed his plans 
with profound dissimulation. He raised an 
army without alarming the emperor. At the 
same time he treated secretly with the king 
of France. 

The emperor received simultaneously two 
manifestoes, one from Maurice, in the name of 
Germany, the other from Henry II. of France, 
who called himself the Protector of the Princes 
of the Empire, and who headed his manifesto 
with a cap of liberty between two daggers. 

While the French invaded Germany and 
took possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, 
Maurice advanced by long marches on Inn- 
spruck (1552). Charles V., ill, and without 
troops, set out at night in pouring rain, and 
had himself carried toward the mountains of 
Carinthia. If Maurice had not been stopped 
by a mutiny, the emperor would have fallen 
into his hands. He was forced, however, to 
submit. The emperor concluded with the 
Protestants the truce of Passau, and the ill 
success of the war which he sustained against 
France changed this truce into a definitive 
peace (Augsburg, 1555). 

End of Charles V.— The aged emperor, 
abandoned by fortune, who loves not the old, 



gave up the empire to his brother, and his 
kingdom to his son, and spent the remainder 
of his days in the seclusion of San Yuste. 
The funeral which he is said, though falsely, 
to have caused to be solemnized during his 
lifetime, would only have been too faithful an 
image of the eclipsed glory which he survived. 
Died 1558. 



PROGRESS OF THE TURKS. 

The Ottoman Sultans become Caliphs. — 

Mohammed II. died (May 3, 1481) and with 
him expired his magnificent projects, which 
amounted to nothing less than the utter ex- 
tinction of the Christian name. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Bajazet II., who, in 15 12, 
was compelled by his youngest son, Selim, to 
renounce the throne in his favor. Sultan 
Selim I. was forty-seven years of age when 
he dethroned his father. He reigned only 
eight years, but in that brief period he 
nearly doubled the extent of the Ottoman 
Empire. 

The splendor of his conquests, the high abil- 
ities which he displayed in literature and in 
politics, as well as in war, and the imperious 
vigor of his character have secured him a high 
place among the Ottoman sultans ; but his 
unsparing cruelty to those who served, as well 
as to those who opposed him, has justly 
brought down on his memory the indignant 
reprobation of mankind. The years from 15 14 
to 15 16 were employed by Selim I. in con- 
quering Northern Mesopotamia and a consid- 
erable part of Persia. He next reduced Syria, 
and turned his arms against Egypt, where the 
Mameluke dynasty had been established since 
the middle of the thirteenth century. Tuman 
Bey, Sultan of tlie Mamelukes, was subdued in 
the spring of 15 17, and Egypt incorporated 
with the Ottoman dominions. When Selim 
conquered Egypt, he found there Mohammed, 
the twelfth caliph of the family of Abbas, and 
he induced him solemnly to transfer the ca- 
liphate to the Ottoman sultan and his succes- 
sors. At the same time Selim took possession 
of the visible insis^nia of that hig^h office which 
the Abbassides had retained — the sacred stand- 
ard, the sword, and the mantle of the prophet. 
The Ottoman Sultan since has been Caliph, Vicar 
of the Prophet of God, Commander of the Faithful 
and Supreme Imam of Is lain. This was the in- 
heritance Selim left to his only son and suc- 
cessor, Solyman I., who for nearly a half cen- 
tury (1520-1566) adorned the throne of the 
Padishah. 

The Knights lose Rhodes.— King Louis 
II., of Hungary, thinking that the death of the 



119 



SIEGES OF VIENNA AND MALTA. 



terrible Selim had made an end to the great- 
ness of the Ottomans, dared to put to death 
Solyman's ambassador. He immediately led 
his forces toward Hungary and captured Bel- 
grade (August, 15 21),. which had so long been 
a bulwark of Christendom against the Turks, 
and before which Mohammed, the captor of 
Constantinople, had so signally failed. Then 
he turned against the Knights of Rhodes, who 
had long had complete command of the sea 
which surrounded their island. They were 
veritable pirates, who infested the Turkish 
coasts, interrupted the navigation, and held 
thousand of Osmanlis in the hardest slavery, 
and their reduction had therefore long been 
ardently desired by the Turks. The knights 
capitulated on December 21, 1522. Four years 
later (May, 1526) Emperor Charles V. pre- 
sented to the remnant of the order the Island 
of Malta, which became their final home. 

The Battle of Mohacz.— When the Os- 
manli army, wasted by this terrible siege of 
Rhodes, had been recruited to its pristine 
strength, Solyman determined to give peace 
to his northern frontiers by the conquest of 
Hungary. On the swampy plain of Mohacz 
the flower of the Hungarian nobility perished, 
mowed down by the fire of the Turkish artil- 
lery. King Louis perished during the flight. 

The battle of Mohacz was one of those 
events which decide the fate of nations. By 
the death of Louis two crowns (of Bohemia 
and Hungary) became vacant, the succession 
to which w^as a subject of vital importance to 
the future welfare of Europe. 

Ferdinand (brother of Emperor Charles V.) 
considered himself entitled to both by his 
marriage with Anne, sister of the deceased 
king, but he deemed it prudent to submit to 
the right of election claimed both by the 
Bohemians and Hungarians. In October, 1526, 
he was duly elected King of Bohemia. 

In Hungary was a double election of John 
Zapolya and of Ferdinand. The former, being 
driven by Ferdinand out of Hungary, promised 
to hold the Hungarian crow^n as Turkish vas- 
sal if Solyman would assist him. In May, 
1529, Solyman marched again toward Hun- 
gary. Buda (Ofen) capitulated on September 
8, 1529, and Zapolya was crowned Turkish 
vassal-king of Hungary. 

Siege of Vienna. — Solyman, in person, 
now marched to Vienna, which had to defend 
itself against an army of 300,000 Turks, with 
300 guns. Solyman sent in a message that if 
the garrison would surrender, he would not 
even enter the town, but press on in search 
of Ferdinand ; if they resisted, he should dine 
in Vienna on the third day, and then no one 
would be spared. The brave garrison of only 



22,000 men and seventy-two guns repulsed all 
their assaults. The last was delivered October 
14th, and in the night the Turks began to re- 
treat. Vienna was saved by the heroism ot 
her defenders, aided by the severity of the 
season, which the Asiatic troops in the Otto- 
man army could ill endure. The tide of 
Turkish conquest in Central Europe had now 
set its mark. The wave once again dashed as 
far (1682), but only to be again broken, and 
then to recede forever. 

The Emperor becomes tributary to the 
Sultan. — Solyman, after his retreat from Vi- 
enna, did not again appear in Hungary till 
1532, when he again invaded Germany with 
forces even stronger than those which he led 
against Vienna. But he was checked in his 
advance by the obstinate defence of the little 
town of Giins, August, 1532, and after desola- 
ting Styria, returned to his own dominions. 

The warlike energies of the Ottomans were 
now for some time chiefly employed in the 
East, where the unremitted enmity of Persia 
to Turkey, and the consequent wars between 
these two great Mahommedan powers, were 
a cause of relief to Christendom, which her 
diplomatists of that age freely acknowledged. 
Solyman added, during that time, to the Otto- 
man Empire large territories in Armenia and 
Mesopotamia and the strong cities of Erivan, 
Van, Mosul, and above all of Bagdad, which 
the Orientals call the '^Mansion of Victory'' 

The war in Hungary had been renewed in 
consequence of the death of John Zapolya, in 
1539, upon which event Ferdinand claimed 
the whole of Hungary, while Zapolya's widow 
implored the assistance of the sultan in behalf 
of her infant son. He came, conquered Hun- 
gary again, and established the Ottoman pro- 
vincial system. In 1547 he made a truce for 
five years with Ferdinand, which left Solyman 
in possession of nearly the whole of Hungary 
and Transylvania, and which bound Ferdinand 
to pay to the sultan a yearly tribute of 30,000 
ducats ($60,000). 

The Siege of Malta. — Solyman's military 
glory sustained in 1565 a heavy blow, by the 
complete failure of the expedition against 
Malta, that new nest of the revived hornets, 
who intercepted the commerce and assailed 
the. coast of his empire, and held numerous 
Moslem slaves in cruel bondage. This siege 
of Malta by 36,000 Turks is one of the most 
memorable feats of arms of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. Hardly 10,000 Christians and the grand- 
master. La Valetta, defended the island. 
Stronghold after stronghold was taken by the 
Turks, until in July only St. Michael was in 
the possession of the Christians, which was 
defended by La Valette in person. After a 



120 



1550 A.D. 



Plate XLIV. 




Strulhers, Serross & Co.,_Engr'B lodj'r'*, N.Y. 



MAEY TUDOR AND QUEEN ELIZABETH. 



siege of more than two months the Turks 
abandoned the attempt in despair and set sail 
for Constantinople. The merit of the defence 
belongs entirely to La Valette. The new 
town built on Malta still bears his name. In 
May, 1566, Hungary was again invaded by 
Solyman, who died in the beginning of the 
campaign in the trenches before Szigeth (Sep- 
tember 4, 1566). 

Solyman Kanouni [i.e., the Law-giver). — 
The reign of Solyman had been the culmina- 
ting point of Ottoman glory. Under him the 
Turks were as formidable on land as on sea ; 
they entered into the politics of Europe by 
their alliance with France against the House 
of Austria. But Solyman was more than a 
warrior : he endeavored to give a system of 
legislation to his people ; he collected the 
maxims and ordinances of his predecessors, 
filled up their deficiencies, and organized the 
civil service of the State. He embellished 
Constantinople by restoring the ancient aque- 
duct, whence the water flows into 800 foun- 
tains. He founded the mosque Souleimanieh, 
which contains four colleges, a hospital for 
the poor, another for the sick, and a library 
containing 2,000 manuscripts. The Turkish 
language was ennobled by the admixture of 
Arabic and Persian. Solyman himself made 
verses in both languages. 

ENGLAND UNDER THE CHILDREN OF 
HENRY VIIL 

Edward VI. (1547-1553). — During the years 
which are known as those of the reign of the 
boy-king, the government of England forsook 
the strong position it had held during the 
reign of Henry VHI. 

Greedy courtiers entered into an alliance 
with Protestants and Reformers (who even to- 
gether formed only a small minority among 
the nation), only that they themselves might 
plunder ecclesiastics and oppress the poor. 
No single act of the wealthy landowners had 
caused such dissatisfaction for many years as 
tlie recklessness with which they had driven 
off the peasants from their agricultural hold- 
ings, in order to inclose the land for their 
sheep, the wool of which fetched a high price. 
Under Henry VHI. it had been prohibited to 
convert arable land into pasture. In the days 
of Edward the prohibition was abandoned, and 
those who sought, under Ket, '• the tanner of 
Norwich,'' to redress the mischief with their 
own hands, were cut down without mercy. 

Since the beginning of 1553 it was apparent 
to all that Edward VI. never would arrive at 
manhood. According to Henry VIII.'s ar- 
rangement Mary was then to ascend the throne, 



who, through her descent from Queen Catha- 
rine and from an inborn disposition, repre- 
sented the Catholic interest. 

The Duke of Northumberland, who mis- 
governed England in the name of the boy- 
king, knowing that Mary's accession would be 
followed by his disgrace, persuaded Edward 
that it lay in his power to alter his father's 
settlement of the succession. Henry VIII. 
had designated the descendants of his younger 
sister Maly as the next heirs after his own chil- 
dren. Mary's elder daughter, Frances, had 
married Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk. Their 
elder daughter was Jane Grey. It was to her, 
whom Northumberland married to one of his 
sons, that he now directed the king's attention, 
and induced him to prefer her to his sisters. 
On Edward's death, July 6, 1553, the heralds 
proclaimed the accession of Queen Jane, who 
betook herself to the Tower, and received the 
homage offered her. But her proclamation as 
queen by Northumberland met with no pop- 
ular response. Northumberland, Lady Jane, 
and the other plotters were arrested, and after- 
ward executed. 

Mary Tudor (1553-1558). — The shouts 
which welcomed Mary expressed the resolu- 
tion of the nation to submit no longerto a hand- 
ful of religious theorists, supported by an un- 
principled band of robbers, who chose to style 
themselves a government. But Mary's reign 
did not come up to the expectations. If in 
the days of Edward VI. Protestantism had 
been associated with selfish greed at home, in 
the days of Mary Catholicism was associated 
with incompetence in the domestic govern- 
ment and with a subservient cringing to for- 
eigners. By her marriage with Philip II. 
(July 25, 1554) the State was laid at the feet 
of the lieir of the Spanish throne. The queen 
neither understood the English character nor 
cared for the things for which Englishmen 
cared. Calais, the pride of many generations 
of Englishmen, was thrown away by her neg- 
ligence. (It was captured by Guise, January 
7, 1558.) 

All she thought of was the success of her 
beloved Philip, by whom she was regarded 
with loathing. In England itself, the debased 
coinage continued to afflict the poor and the 
man of business alike, while the wealthy were 
frightened by the evident desire of the queen 
to place once more the confiscated ecclesiasti- 
cal lands in the hands of the clergy. Mary's 
death (November 17, 1558), like Edward's, 
came at a moment fortunate for herself, when 
a revolution was preparing to sweep away all 
that she held most dear. 

Accession of Queen Elizabeth. — A few 
hours after Mary's decease the Commons 



121 



RISE OF THE DUTCH KEPUHLIC 



were summoned to the upper house to receive 
a communication there : it was, that Mary 
was dead and that God had given them an- 
other queen, my Lady Elizabetii. The par- 
liament dissolved; the queen was proclaimed 
in Westminster and in London. Some day? 
afterward she made her entry into the capital 
amid the rejoicing of the people, who greeted 
her accession as their deliverance and their 
salvation. Elizabeth at once took up the posi- 
tion which had been occupied by Henry 
VIII. Her reign was indeed the continuation 
of her father's. The last two reigns had 
shown the impossibility of governing Eng- 
land by the help of either of the extreme 
parties, and the queen was therefore well ad- 
vised in taking up her ground between them. 
Yet, prudent as her course was, it was one 
surrounded with immediate difficulty and dan- 
ger 

THE AGE OF PHILIP II. 

Accession of Philip II. — Already King of 
England (as husband of Mary Tudor) and of 
Naples, and Duke of Milan, PhiHp II. re- 
ceived, by his father's solemn resignation, on 
October 25, 1555, the Burgundian heritage, 
and a month later Charles ceded to him 
the crowns of Castile and Aragon, with 
their dependencies in the Old World and the 
New. The empire, indeed, passed to his un- 
cle Ferdinand ; but, with tliis exception, the 
whole of his father's vast dominions lay now 
in his grasp. Philip II. was an entirely Castilian 
prince, who wanted to establish everywhere 
the Spanish forms of administration, legisla- 
tion, and religion. At first he restrained him- 
self, in order not to lose his hold on England. 
But after the death of Mary, and Elizabeth's 
refusal to marry him (1558), he no longer dis- 
simulated. 

Revolt of the Netherlands. — The destruc- 
tion of more than four hundred churches by 
the mob in the Netherlands gave him a wel- 
come occasion to begin with the extermination 
of the Protestants. The Duke of Alva was or- 
dered to march with a Spanish army against 
the heretics (1566). On his arrival he estab- 
lislied the Council of Bloody which executed all 
who were in the least suspected of having aided 
and abetted in the desecration of the churches. 
For a moment all was silent and submissive, 
and when finally they did try to shake off the 
yoke, they were quickly subdued. 

Philip at the Height of his Power. — In 
1572 the power of Philip II. had reached its 
height. The Netherlands were at his feet. In 
the East his troubles from the pressure of the 
Turks seemed brought to an end by the brill- 
iant victory at Lepanto (October 7, 1571), in 



which his fleet, with those of Venice and the 
pope, annihilated the fleet of Sultan Selim II. 
He could throw his whole weight upon the Cal- 
vinism of the West, and above all upon France, 
where the Guises were fast sinking into mere 
partisans of Spain. The common danger drew 
France and England together, and Catharine 
de Medicis strove to bind the two countries in 
one political action by offering to Elizabeth 
the hand of her son Anjou. But at this mo- 
ment of danger the whole situation was 
changed by the second rising of the Nether- 
lands. 

The Rise of the Dutch Republic— Driven 
to despair by the greed and persecution of 
Alva they rose in a revolt which, after strange 
alternations of fortune, gave to the world the 
Republic of the United Provinces. The open- 
ing which this rising afforded was seized by 
the Huguenot leaders as a political engine to 
break the power which Catharine exercised 
over Charles IX. He, dreading the power of 
Spain, and eager to grasp the opportunity of 
breaking it by a seizure of the Netherlands, 
listened to the counsels of Coligny, who 
pressed for war upon Philip, and promised the 
support of the Huguenots in an invasion of 
the low countries. But to Catharine the su- 
premacy of the Huguenots seemed as fatal to 
the crown as the supremacy of the Catholics. 
She suddenly united with the Guises and suf- 
fered them to rouse the fanatical mob of 
Paris, while she won back Charles IX. by pic- 
turing the royal power as about to pass into 
the hands of Coligny. On August 24th, 
St. Bartholomew's Day, the plot broke out in 
an awful massacre, in which 100,000 Protest- 
ants perished. Instead of conquering the 
Netherlands, France plunged madly back into 
a chaos of civil war, and the Dutch were left 
to cope single-handed with the armies of 
Spain. They offered successively to submit 
to the German branch of the house of Austria, 
to France, and to England. At length the 
United Provinces, considered as a prey by all 
to whom they applied, determined to remain 
a republic. 

They concluded the union of Utrecht in 
1579. The genius of this new-born State was 
the Prince of Orange, who, abandoning the 
southern provinces to the invincible Duke of 
Parma, maintained the struggle by statesman- 
ship until a fanatic, armed by Spain, assassi- 
nated him in 1584. The help now furnished 
the insurgents by the English, under Leicester 
(1587), induced Philip to fit out the great Ar- 
mada, which, however, was destroyed by ter- 
rible storms and the bravery of the English 
(1588). After this blow the prosperity and 
power of Spain began to decline. 



122 



HENRY IV. 



Struggles of Henry IV. — Philip II., re- 
pulsed by the Netherlands and England, turned 
all his forces against France, where three sons 
of Henry II. and Catharine de Medici had fol- 
lowed each other quickly on the throne. The 
last survivor, Henry III., having no children, 
and the majority of the Catholics rejecting the 
sovereignty of the heretical heir-apparent, Hen- 
ry of Navarre, the Duke of Guise and Philip 
n. united to dethrone the last of the Valois, 
leaving the distribution of the spoil a future 
subject of dispute. But Henry of Navarre, 
against every expectation, resisted the whole 
united force of the Catholics, The murder of 
Guise, by order of Henry III. (December 22, 
1588), forced the latter to throw himself into 
the arms of the King of Navarre, and they 
besieged Paris together, which was held by the 
brother of the murdered Guise, Mayenne, who 
was now at the head of the Catholic and 
Spanish party. The Kings of France and 
Navarre were encamping at St. Cloud, when a 
young monk, named Clement, assassinated 
Henry III. (1589). Henry of Navarre, now 
virtually King of France, was not only aban- 
doned by the Catholics, but soon severely 
pressed by Mayenne, who made sure of bring- 
ing him, with his hands and feet bound, to 
Paris. But Henry awaited Mayenne near 
Arques, in Normandy, and held 30,000 men at 
bay with 3,000. In the following year (1590) 
he even was victorious over Mayenne and the 
Spaniards at Ivry, on the Eure. From Ivry 
he came to blockade Paris, which was not de- 
livered until the arrival of a Spanish army 
under the Prince of Parma. Mayenne saw he 
could not maintain his position without the 
help of the Spaniards, who wanted to give the 
crown of France to Isabella Clara Eugenia, 
daughter of Philip II. and Elizabeth de Valois. 
Dissensions burst out at the meeting of the 
States General in Paris (1593), where the claims 
of Philip's daughter were foiled by Mayenne, 
but not to his own advantage. The league 
against Henry of Navarre lost its ground of 
existence by the abjuration, and especially bv 
the absolution of Henry IV. ( 1593-1595), and its 
principal stronghold by the entry of the king 
into the capital (1594). Henry IV. now turned 
the military ardor of the nation against Spain. 
In 1598 Philip II. at length gave way; all 
his projects had failed, and his resources were 
exhausted. He renounced his pretensions on 
France by the peace of Vervins (May 2d), and 
transferred the Netherlands to his daughter 
Isabella (Mav 6th). Henry IV. terminated his 
internal troubles at the same time as his for- 
eign wars, by granting religious toleration and 



political guarantees to the Protestants (Edict 
of Nantes, April, 1598). 

The Catholic Reaction. — Only one thing 
cheered Philip's last years (he died in 1598), 
Catholicism began definitely to win ground. 
Her faith was settled and defined. The ecclesi- 
astical abuses were sternly put down. New 
religious orders rose to meet the wants of the 
day : the Capuchins became its preachers, 
the Jesuits became not only its preachers, but 
its directors, its schoolmasters, its missionaries, 
its diplomatists. Everywhere the Jesuits won 
converts, and their peaceful victories were 
soon backed by the arm of Spain. 

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE IM- 
MEDIATE SUCCESSORS OF SOLYMAN 
THE MAGNIFICENT. 

The Battle of Lepanto (October 8, 1571). 
— While up to Solyman's time the Ottoman 
power had steadily advanced, after his time it 
began to go down. Under his indolent suc- 
cessor, Selim 11.(1566-1574), the Turks suffered 
their first great reverse. This was the annihila- 
tion of the Ottoman fleet in the Gulf of Lepan- 
to by the combined fleets of Philip II. of Ven- 
ice and of the pope, under the command of 
Don Juan d'Austria. Although the Turks lost 
only their fleet, which might be replaced, while 
the Venetians lost Cyprus, which for more than 
three centuries (until 1878) formed part of the 
Ottoman dominion, none the less the battle of 
Lepanto marks the turning-point in the history 
of the Ottoman power. It broke the spell, and 
taught men that the Turks could be conquered. 
Hitherto their career had been one of constant 
advance. Now for the first time they were 
utterly defeated in a great battle. And with 
their military power their moral power de- 
cayed also. The line of the great Sultans had 
come to an end. The succession of great 
rulers, which had gone on without a break 
fromOthmanto Solyman, now stopped. 

Successors of Selim II. — Under Amurath 
III., Mohammed III., and Ahmed 1.(1574-1617) 
the Turks kept up, with variable success, long 
wars against the Persians and Hungarians. • 

The Janissaries, who had disturbed the 
reigns of these princes with mutinies, put their 
successors, Mustapha and Othman, to death 
(161 7-1623). At last, however, Amurath IV. 
(1623-1640), the conqueror of Bagdad, reduced 
the Janissaries to order ; he was the last great 
sultan of the family of Othman, but died at an 
early period, exhausted by intemperance. 
His brother Ibrahim was put to death in the 
same year in which the Christian powers ended 
the Thirty Years' War (1648). 



123 



THE DECLINE OF THE SPANISH ASCENDENCY (1698-1659). 



BEFORE THE BREAKING OUT OF THE 
THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1598-1618. 

The House of Habsburg in Spain. — At 

the peace of Vervins (1598) just a century had 
elapsed since the French, by their invasion of 
Italy, had inaugurated the modern European 
system, and the result up to this time had 
been entirely in favor of their Spanish rivals. 
Spain had succeeded in seizing and retaining 
the kingdom of Naples and the Duchy of 
Milan, while throughout the whole of the pe- 
ninsula her influence was paramount. In spite 
of a wretched system of administration and the 
revolt of her provinces in the Netherlands, she 
was, at the death of Philip II. (1598), still in- 
contestabiy the leading power of Europe. The 
Spanish infantry continued to retain their pres- 
tige; the conquest of Portugal {Spanish province, 
1581-1640) helped to support the declining 
power and reputation of Spain ; and Philip 
II., toward the close of his long reign, still 
aspired to Universal Monarchy, by the con- 
quest of England, and the reduction of 
France under his dominion by placing his 
daughter on the throne. But the exhaustion 
of Spain quickly increased under the adminis- 
trations of the Cardinal-Duke of Lerma and 
the Duke of Olivarez, favorites of Philip III. 
and Philip IV. As Spain no longer produced 
merchandise to exchange for the precious 
metals of America, she was no longer en- 
riched by them. In 1609 Spain was forced to 
grant a truce of twelve years to the revolted 
Netherlands, and in the same year this truce 
ended (162 1) she drove away a million of in- 
dustrious subjects (the Moors from Valencia). 
The House of Habsburg in Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Austria. — Ferdinand I. and 
Maximilian II. were prudent and judicious 
princes ; they maintained toleration and were 
principally anxious for the peace and pros- 
perity of their people. The grand feature of 
Maximilian's reign (1564-1576) is his wise 
moderation in religious matters. To him be- 
longs the honor of being the first European 
Sovereign to adopt toleration, not from policy 
but from principle. His wife, Mary of Castile, 
a daughter of Charles V., was entirely led by 
the Jesuits. The marriage of her eldest daugh- 
ter Anne to Philip II. of Spain (November, 
1570), strengthened the Roman Catholic party 
in Austria. Maximilian's eldest son Rodolph 
was educated in Spain in the strictest principles 
of the Roman Catholic faith. After the death of 
Don Carlos (1568) Philip thought of making 
Rodolph his successor and to give him the 
hand of his then only daughter in marriage. 



But these plans came to nothing. Rodolph 
returned into Germany, and was invested suc- 
cessively with the crowns of Hungary and Bo- 
hemia, as well as elected King of the Romans. 

At his father's death (1576), besides the Im- 
perial crown, he also succeeded to the sole 
possession of the Austrian lands : for Maxi- 
milian established the right of primogeni- 
ture in his hereditary dominions. Rodolph, 
however, entrusted the Austrian administra- 
tion to his brother, the Archduke Ernest, and 
took up his own residence for the most part 
at Prague. Rodolph possessed considerable 
abilities and acquirements which were chiefly 
applied to alchemy and astrology ; the latter 
of w4iich led him to patronize the eminent 
astronomers Kepler and Tyclio Brahe. 

Though himself unfit to govern, he was yet 
loath to resign any share of his power to his 
eldest surviving brother Matthias, the heir 
presumptive of his hereditary lands. In 1606 
Matthias was, by a family compact, de- 
clared Head of the House of Habsburg, and 
two years later Rodolph ceded Hungary to 
Matthias as well as the Archduchy of Austria. 
The Emperor still retained Bohemia, but Mat- 
thias received the title of King-elect of Bo- 
hemia. When, in 1609, even Bohemia rose, 
against Rodolph, in order not to lose its 
crown also, he signed the celebrated Royal 
Charter [Majestaets-Brief), w^hich was the im- 
mediate occasion of the Thirty Years' War. By 
this instrument liberty of conscience was al- 
lowed to all Bohemians who belonged to cer- 
tain recognized religions and they received per- 
mission to build churches on all crowm lands. 

It was soon discovered that the Emperor 
Rodolph intended not to observe the Royal 
Charter, and that he was endeavoring to de- 
prive his brother Matthias of the succession 
to the crown of Bohemia. The States as- 
sembled (April, 161 1) and demanded of Ro- 
dolph, who was a virtual prisoner in their 
hands, to be released from their allegiance. 
On the 23d of May Matthias received the 
crown and the homage of the Bohemians ; 
recognizing, however, their right to elect their 
kings and engaging to observe the charter 
granted by Rodolph. 

Rodolph, whose derangement had rendered 
his deposition necessary, did not long survive 
these transactions ; he died January 20, 1612, 
and, in the following June, Matthias was 
elected Emperor in his place. 

The House of Vasa in Sweden and 
Poland. — The three Northern kingdoms of 
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were joined 



lU 



SWEDEN AND POLAND. 



together under the famous Danish Queen 
Margaret, by the union of Cahnar (1397). The 
union, however, lasted hardly fifty years (until 
1448), when the Danes elected for their King 
Count Christian of Oldenburg, while the 
Swedes and Norwegians chose Charles Knut- 
son, who on his deathbed (1470) bequeathed 
Sweden to Sten Sture. Christian I. was suc- 
ceeded in 1 48 1 by his son John, who was also 
in 1483 acknowledged in Sweden, where, how- 
ever, in spite of all his efforts, the Sture 
family succeeded in retaining the virtual sov- 
ereignty. When John died (15 13) he was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Christian II., who equally 
irritated the Danish nobility, against which he 
protected the peasantry ; Sweden, which, after 
his victory over the Stures, he deluged with 
blood (1520), and the Hanse towns, against 
whicli he had closed the Danish ports by his 
prohibitions (15 17). He was soon punished 
both for the good and evil which he had done 
by insurrections in all his dominions. That in 
Sweden was led by Gustavus Vasa, a descend- 
ant of King Charles Knutson, who at Christ 
mas, 15 2 1, roused the nation against the Danes, 
who were everywhere either killed or driven 
away. At the end of a few months the only 
possessions w^hich they retained in Sweden 
were Abo, Calmar, and Stockholm. 

Christian II. had chosen precisely this criti- 
cal moment for attempting in Denmark a rev- 
olution capable of shaking the steadiest throne. 
He published two edicts, which excited against 
him the most powerful orders in that king- 
dom, the clergy and the nobility. He sup- 
pressed the temporal jurisdiction of the bishops 
and deprived the nobles of the right to sell 
their peasants. The nobles and bishops 
promptly dethroned him, and offered the 
crown to his uncle Frederick Duke of Hol- 
stein. Thus Christian II. lost both Denmark 
and Sweden at the same time. 

After having delivered Sweden from tile 
foreigner, Gustavus wrested her from the 
bishops. As in other parts of Europe, the no- 
bles were induced to join the movement by 
the prospect of sharing the spoils of the Church, 
and in a great diet at Westeras, in 1527, the 
reformation \vn.s introduced. The castles and 
lands, of the prelates were then seized, con- 
vents were suppressed, and their inmates turned 
adrift ; and many were inclined to withhold 
even the tithes of the parochial clergy had 
not- the king issued an order for their pay- 
ment. For this kingdom of Sweden was gov- 
erned rather by the personal authority of the 
monarch than by settled laws, and its external 
importance depended more on the character 
of its inhabitants than on the amount of its 
revenue. The income of Gustavus Vasa did 



not surpass J6,ooo, while his expenses frequent* 
ly exceeded $60,000 ; and yet he was the ob- 
ject of veneration, not only to his own people 
but to all Europe. 

Gustavus was succeeded in 1550 by his eld- 
est son, Eric XIV., who, being insane, was de- 
posed and murdered (1578). He was succeeded 
by his brother John (1578-1592). The artifices 
of his wife, Catherine (sister of the last of the 
Jagellos in Poland), inspired this monarch with 
a predilection for Catholicism, which had very 
nearly drawn upon him a fate similar to that 
of his brother ; he lived, however, to see his 
son Sigismund seated on the throne of Poland. 
This Sigismund thought proper to manifest 
his dislike of the Protestant nobility in a man- 
ner which soon destroyed their confidence in 
him. Dissident churches were forbidden on all 
the crown estates, and Protestants were ex- 
cluded from the Senate. The Swedes who 
had scarcely known how to forgive his father's 
tranquil preference for Catholicism, were un- 
able to endure a king who was endeavoring, 
with imprudent zeal, to counteract all the sen- 
timents and habits which had been introduced 
among them since the accession of Gustavus 
Vasa. They therefore deprived him of Swe- 
den and committed the administration of 
affairs to his uncle, Charles, Duke of Suder- 
manland, at first under the title of protector 
and afterward of king (1604). This Charles 
had frequently not more than a thousand dol- 
lars in his treasury, but his prudence and suc- 
cessful adherence to the maxims of his father 
sufficed to confirm his power. He was suc- 
ceeded in 161 1 on the Swedish throne by Gus- 
tavus Adolphus. 

The House of Stuart in England and 
Scotland. — Lonely as Queen Elizabeth had 
always been, her loneliness deepened as she 
drew toward the grave. The temper of the 
age, in fact, was changing, and isolating her as 
it changed. Her own England, the England 
which had grown up around her, serious, 
moral, prosaic, shrunk coldly from this bril- 
liant, fanciful, unscrupulous child of earth 
and the renaissance. The statesmen and 
warriors of her earlier days had dropped one 
by one from her council-board. Leicester 
had died in the year of the Armada (1588) ; 
two years later Walsingham followed him 
to the grave ; in 1598 Burleigh himself passed 
away. The rivalry between Robert Cecil and 
her favorite Lord Essex hurried the latter 
into fatal projects, which led to his failure 
in Ireland and to an insane outbreak of re- 
volt, which brought him in 1601 to the block. 
After the signing of the death-warrant of 
Essex (her grandchild by adoption and last of 
the Boleyn blood) a strange melancholy settled 



125 



THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN". 



down upon her and in the early morning of 
March 24, 1603, the life of Queen Elizabeth 
ebbed quietly away. 

When James I., son of Mary, Queen of 
Scots, succeeded to Elizabeth, the long reign 
of that princess had exhausted the enthusiasm 
and the obedience of the nation. The char- 
acter of the new king was not calculated to 
efface this impression. England beheld with 
a jealous eye a Scotcii king, surrounded by 
Scotchmen, belonging, through his mother 
to the House of Guise ; more versed in the- 
ology than in politics and turning pale at 
the sight of a sword. Everything about him 
was displeasing to the English ; his impru- 
dent declaration in favor of the divine right 
of kings, his project for the union of England 
and Scotland, and his tolerance toward the 
Catholics, who conspired against him (Gun- 
powder Plot, 1605). On the other hand, Scot- 
land was not better pleased with his attempt 
to impose upon her the Anglican form of wor- 
ship. James I., in the hands of his favorites, 
made himself by his prodigality dependent on 
the parliament, which at the same time he 
irritated by the contrast between his weakness 
and pretensions. 

Elizabeth's glory had consisted in raising 
England in her own estimation ; the misfor- 
tune of the Stuarts lay in humiliating her. 
James gave up the part which his predeces- 
sors had played, of the enemy of Spain and 
Chief of the Protestants in Europe. He did 
not declare war with Spain until 1625, and 
then in spite of his own wishes. He married 
his son to a Catholic princess (Henrietta of 
France). 

The House of HohenzoUern in Bran- 
denburg and Prussia. — We saw that by the 
peace of Thorn, in 1446, the Teutonic Order 
made over West Prussia to Poland, and con- 
sented to hold East Prussia in feudal subjection 
to Poland. The Grand-Masters of the Teutonic 
Order soon attempted to shirk the feudal hom- 
age due to Poland, and even to recover West- 
ern Prussia. In the hope that by means of his 
family connections he would be able to restore 
the Order's independence, they chose, in 15 11, 
as Grand-Master, Albert of HohenzoUern. 
This, however, he was unable to do, and in 
April, 15 2 1, after an unfortunate war, he was 
glad to conclude a four years' truce witli Poland. 
During this truce Albert went to Germany in 
the vain hope of obtaining help of the Em- 
pire. On his w^ay back he had an interview 
Vv'ith Luther, who advised him to take a wife 
and convert Prussia into an hereditary princi- 
pality. At the expiration of the truce (April, 
1525) he repaired to Cracow and concluded a 
peace with King Sigismund I., by virtue of 



which he received East Prussia as a secular 
duchy, with succession to his heirs, but still 
in feudal subjection to Poland. He was 
succeeded, in 1568, by his son, Albert Freder- 
ick, who died in 1618 without male issue. 
His son-in-law, John Sigismund, of Branden- 
burg, united now the Duchy of Prussia with 
the Electorate in Brandenburg. 

Cleve Succession. (Plate XLH.) — In the 
city of Donauworth, a Catholic procession was 
hooted and assaulted by a Protestant mob 
(1606), in consequence of which the city was 
placed under the ban of the Empire and the 
execution of the sentence intrusted to Maxi- 
milian of Bavaria (August, 1607). A demand 
was then made for the expenses of executing 
the ban, which were estimated so high as to 
render payment impossible, and thus Donau- 
worth from a free imperial Protestant city was 
converted into a Catholic provincial town of 
Bavaria. The German Protestant princes, be- 
ing alarmed by the proceedings at Donau- 
worth, formed a defensive alliance called the 
Protestant Union (1608). This alliance on the 
part of the Protestants provoked a counter 
one of the Catholics, organized by Maximilian 
of Bavaria, which afterward obtained the name 
of the Holy League. The leader of the Union 
was the Elector Palatine ; of the League, the 
Duke of Bavaria, both princes of the house of 
Wittelsbach. 

Thus the great religious parties of Germany 
were formally arrayed against each other ; for 
open violence nothing was wanting but the 
occasion, and this was afforded by a dispute 
which arose respecting the Cleve succession. 

On March 25, 1609, had died, without issue^ 
John William, Duke of Cleves, Julich, and 
Perg, Count of the Mark and Ravensberg, and 
Lord of Ravenstein. Numerous claimants to 
the Cleves succession arose, of which the Elec- 
tor of Brandenburg and the Prince of Neuburg 
were the principal claimants. The question 
between these claimants turned on the point 
whether the daughter of the eldest sister could 
contest the claim of the son of the youngest 
sister. In the present posture of affairs the 
question of this succession derived its chief im- 
portance from the circumstance that the Dukes 
of Cleves had remained firmly attached to the 
orthodox creed, thus constituting one of the 
few large Catholic lay powers among the tem- 
poral princes of Germany. Emperor Ru- 
dolph evoked the cause before the Aulic 
Council, as the proper tribunal in all feudal 
disputes, and till a definite judgment should 
be pronounced he sequestered them in the 
hands of his cousin, Leopold, Bishop of Pas- 
sau. The Elector of Brandenburg and the 
Prince of Neuburg, reckoning on the support 



126 



BEGINNING OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 



of France and the Netherlands, resolved to 
make common cause ; and, regardless of the 
Emperor's prohibition to the inhabitants of 
the duchies to aci^nowledge any lord till the 
imperial decision was awarded, they jointly oc- 
cupied those territories, and, relying upon the 
help of Henry IV., assumed the title of Princes 
in possession. 

Assassination of Henry IV. of France. — 
The reliance which the Protestant princes 
placed on Henry IV. was not unfounded. 
For Henry, or rather his chief adviser, Sully, 
had formed a magnificent scheme for the re- 
construction of Europe. Against the Spanish 
plan of a universal Theocratic Afonarc/iy, Sully 
formed the antagonistic one of a Christian Re- 
public^ in which for the bigotry and intoler- 
ance, supported by physical force, were to be 
substituted a mutual toleration and the sup- 
pression of all persecution. A principal aim, 
and indeed essential condition of the scheme, 
was the wresting of the imperial sceptre from 
the House of Habsburg ; a scheme which ap- 
peared to be feasible only by enticing the 
Duke of Bavaria with the hope of obtaining 
it. It does not appear how far Maximilian of 
Bavaria himself had entered into this plan 
for transferring to him the empire; yet it is 
certain that he remained perfectly quiet at 
the time of the French king's projected inva- 
sion, notwithstanding that the members of the 
Protestant Union had taken up arms. In the 
midst of great preparations for war, Henry 
was assassinated at Paris (May 14, 1610) by 
Frangois Ravaillac. He was succeeded by his 
minor son, Louis XIII. , under the regency of 
his mother, Marie de' Medici. Henry's assas- 
sination postponed the coming war nearly 
eight years. . 

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648). 

The Immediate Causes.— Southern Ger- 
many, where the Austrian Habsburgs, so long 
lukewarm in Cathoiicism, had at last become 
zealots in its defence, was the first country to 
be recatholicized. In 1619 the childless Em- 
peror Matthias secured for his cousin Ferdi- 
nand (grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I.), 
Duke of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, who 
had been educated by the Jesuits in strict 
Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia' and 
Hungary, in spite of the objections of the 
Protestant estates. Soon afterward he was 
also elected emperor. 

In the meantime the Bohemians had de- 
posed him from the throne of Bohemia and 
elected the young Frederick V., Elector Pal- 
atine, head of the Protestant Union and son- 
in-law of James I., King of England {The 



Winter King). Emperor Ferdinand II. called 
in the help of Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, 
head of the Catholic League, who marched to 
Bohemia and drove the Winter King out of 
Prague. He was put under the ban and his 
lands confiscated (1620). This was the begin- 
ning of the terrible Thirty Years' War (1618- 
1648), the last struggle which marked the 
progress of the reformation. It is generally 
divided into four periods, which were prop- 
erly as many diiferent wars. 

The Bohemian-Palatine Period 1618- 
1623. — Maximilian of Bavaria with the army 
of the League commanded by Tilly, marched 
to Bohemia and joined the imperial general, 
Buquoy. They were victorious (November 
8, 1620), in the battle of Weissenberg, over the 
troops of Frederick V., who, defeated and 
helpless, abandoned the contest in despair, 
and forfeited both the Bohemian crown and 
his Electorate. 

The defeat of Frederick V. {the Winter king) 
produced the destruction of the constitution of 
Bohemia, and of the Evangelical Union in the 
empire, which had neglected to support its own 
interests. The Emperor Ferdinand, strength- 
ened by victory and by the acquisition of 
treasures from the confiscations, now turned 
his armies to the Palatinate, which was con- 
quered in execution of the ban by Maxi- 
milian's general, Tilly, with the help of Spanish 
troops under Spinola. At a diet held at 
Ratisbon (January, 1623), the Upper Palati- 
nate, together with the Electoral dignity, was 
transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria. 

Thus the Count Palatine was irretrievably 
ruined, chiefly tlirough the selfish anxiety of 
his father-in-law, James I. of England, to effect 
a match between his son and the Infanta, 
which prevented him from vigorously assist- 
ing his son-in-law against the House of Habs- 
burg. 

The Danish Period. — Christian IV. of 
Denmark, who, as Duke of Holstein, was also 
a German prince, was elected military chief 
of the Circle of Lower Saxony (May, 1625), 
and on the i8th of that month he addressed a 
letter to Emperor Ferdinand II., in which he 
declared his determination to put an end to 
the quartering of troops, with which some of 
the princes of that circle were oppressed, con- 
trary to the laws of the empire. Ferdinand 
answered politely, postponing the considera- 
tion of the questions urged, though he went 
on increasing his forces. 

Meanwhile, Christian IV. marched his army 
from the Elbe to the Weser, where he met 
Tilly with the imperial army, who, although 
the campaign went in his favor, appealed to 
the. emperor for assistance. At the time of 



137 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 



Tilly's application for aid, Wallenstein, Duke of 
Friedland, offered to raise, at his own expense, 
an army of 20,000 men for the emperor, the 
troops to be supported by requisitions where- 
ever they were cantoned. His offer having 
been accepted, a hundred patents of colonel- 
cies were sold by Wallenstein to the greater 
nobles, on condition of their providing officers 
and men. These colonels in turn sold patents 
to their captains, the captains to their subal- 
terns, without any reference to the imperial 
government, and thus was created an army 
which looked up to Wallenstein as their lord 
and proprietor. With this army he marched 
into Northern Germany, defeated the Protes- 
tants under Mansfield at the Bridge of Dessau, 
and then, united with Tilly, conquered Hol- 
stein (1627), Wallenstein alone conquered 
Schleswig and Jutland, drove the dukes of 
Mecklenburg from their country, and forced 
the Duke of Pomerania to submission. 

In order to prevent a junction of the Danes 
and Swedes, a peace was concluded at Lubeck 
(1629) between the emperor and the king of 
Denmark, on terms exceedingly favorable to 
the latter, who received back all the terri- 
tories of which he had been deprived by Wal- 
lenstein and Tilly, on pledging himself never 
to become a party to any confederacy against 
tlie emperor. 

Result of the Conquest of Northern 
Germany. — The emperor, elated with his vic- 
tory, began a crusade against tlie Protestants 
of Germany, beginning with those of Bohemia. 
Many of the leading men of Bohemia were 
executed ; hundreds of Bohemian families 
were exiled ; and the Catholic w^orship was 
restored in all the lands of the Bohemian 
crown. The emperor's designs extended be- 
yond Bohemia. He aimed at the reduction of 
all the German princes to the same position 
as the nobles of other countries ; and as a step 
to the accomplishment of this, he ordered the 
restoration of all the church lands that had 
been seized by laymen subsequently to the 
treaty of Passau {Edict of Restitution, March 
29, 1629). 

Even the Catholics, many of whom had 
shared in the distribution of the church lands, 
resisted this decree, and began to be alarmed 
at the immense powder which the House of 
Habsburg was assuming in the empire, under 
the pretence of zeal for the restoration of the 
Catholic Church. It was, however, carried 
into effect with great severity by Wallenstein. 
But the discontent excited by his proceedings 
was expressed by the estates of the empire so 
loudly and unequivocally as to compel the 
emperor to dismiss Wallenstein from his ser- 
vice (June 24, 1630). 



On the same day Gustavus Adolphus of 
Sweden landed in Northern Germany. 

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was 
now in his thirty-sixth year. His father had 
left him a well-confirmed authority, though 
without treasure ; the nobles who might have 
endangered his power had been humbled in the 
preceding revolutions, and there was nothing 
to fear from Russia, Denmark, or Poland. The 
Tsar Michael Romanoff purchased peace from 
the young king (161 7), at the expense of a 
part of Livonia ; and the King of Denmark re- 
nounced the claim which the house of Olden- 
burg had hitherto maintained, to reign over 
the Swedes against their will. Richelieu had, 
through his ambassador Charnace, negotiated 
a truce between Sweden and Poland and prom- 
ised to furnish Gustavus with an annual sub- 
sidy. 

Germany appeared, in reality, to be the 
country in which he might seek for power and 
opulence with the greatest prospect of suc- 
cess. He knew^ that, though the royal power 
was circumscribed in Sweden by definite laws, 
yet the dev'otion of nations to extraordinary 
men is not to be confined by rules, and he un- 
dertook to render his people a nation of heroes. 
His method of conducting war was of his own 
invention, and founded upon excellent prin- 
ciples ; he was well acquainted with the ex- 
perience and the maxims of antiquity ; but his 
intelligent mind was able to modify them ac- 
cording to the nature of the weapons and other 
circumstances of modern times. He felt the in- 
conveniences of the heavy infantry, and as he 
placed more reliance on the execution of ma- 
noeuvres than on physical strength, he disposed 
that species of force in smaller divisions and 
moved them in platoons among the cavalry. 
Together with the lofty character of his gen- 
ius, which manifested itself in the greatness of 
his plans, he combined the power of attention 
to minute details in the organization of his 
army, and a calm and penetrating insight into 
circumstances of the greatest intricacy. He 
also knew how to inflame his troops with re- 
ligious ardor. 

The Swedish Period (1630-1635). — Hav- 
ing wrested Pomerania from the Imperialists, 
Gustavus in vain endeavored to persuade the 
Elector of Saxony, and the Elector of Branden- 
burg, his brother-in-law, to ally themselves 
with him in defence of their religion. He 
expected that Tilly's attack upon Magdeburg 
(March, 163 1) would procure him the alliance 
of those princes, but as both of them contin- 
ued to decline his proposals, he was compelled 
to leave Magdeburg to its fate, which conse- 
quently was taken by storm (May loth) and 
dreadfully handled by Pappenheim, who served 



138 



THE SWEDISH WAR. 



under Tilly. This sack of Magdeburg, how- 
ever, threw Brandenburg and Saxony into the 
arms of Gustavus. Tilly at once marched into 
Saxony and occupied Leipsic, and on the ap- 
proach of Gustavus and the Saxon Elector he 
offered them battle at Breitenfeld. After an 
engagement of five hours Tilly was completely 
defeated (September 7, 1631). 

After this decisive victory, Germany seemed 
to lie at the mercy of the Swedish King, who 
resolved to march to the Rhine. A Swedish 
officer who preceded him succeeded in gain- 
ing to his alliance the great towns on his 

route. , , J. 

At Christmas, 163 1, Gustavus was holding 
court at Mayence, the recognized head of Prot- 
estant Germany, accompanied by his consort, 
and surrounded by a crowd of princes and am- 
bassadors. The Swedish arms appeared every- 
where successful ; the greater part of Ger- 
many was in their hands ; the Catholic League 
had been dissipated. -r- j- ^ 

At the urgent request of Emperor t erdinand, 
Wallenstein collected an army of 40,000 men, 
over which he received uncontrolled command 
The Saxons, who after the battle of Breitenfeld 
had occupied Prague, were so quickly driven 
from Bohemia that their eagerness for the war 
and the Swedish alliance became materially 

chilled. . 

Meanwhile Gustavus was pushing on his 
conquests and pursued Tilly and his retreating 
army into Bavaria. The Danube was passed 
at Donauworth, without opposition, but Tilly, 
strono-ly posted at Rain, disputed the passage 
of the Lech. After Tilly had been mortally 
wounded the Bavarians abandoned their posi- 
tion (April 15th). . 1 u • A 
Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged 
Maximilian in Ingolstadt, but forced Munich 
to surrender. Wallenstein was now summoned 
to the assistance of Maximilian. After the 
junction of their armies Wallenstein assumed 
the chief command. Gustavus, who had in 
vain endeavored to prevent this junction, now 
hastened to seize Nuremberg, where he could 
easily communicate with his alUes both _ m 
North and South Germany, while the situation 
of the place rendered it easy of defence ; and 
the town, with its immediate environs, was con- 
verted into one vast fortified camp, capable of 
sheltering 50,000 men. Wallenstein also es- 
tablished a fortified camp a few miles north Ox 
Nuremberg. Here the two great captains sat 
nine weeks watching each other. Wallen- 
stein's intrenchments were attacked in vain 
(August 24th). A fortnight afterward (Sep- 
tember 7th) Gustavus broke up from his camp 
and took the road to Bavaria. Wallenstein 
also broke up and marched into Saxony, for 



the purpose of compelling the elector to re- 
nounce his alliance with the Swedes. 

Gustavus, at the earnest entreaty of the 
elector, returned by forced marches toward 
Saxony, and finding that Wallenstein's troops 
were now dispersed in winter quarters and 
thata detachment under Pappenheim had been 
sent to the Rhine, he compelled the Imperial- 
ists to give him battle on the plain which 
stretches from Lutzen to Leipsic. In this bat- 
tle Gustavus Adolphus lost his life (November 
16 1632). But the Swedes, now under com- 
mand of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, enraged by 
the death of their king, fought with a fury and 
desperation whi'ch nothing could resist, and 
after a bloody struggle of nine hours, Wallen- 
stein's troops at last gave way. Thus per- 
ished, in his thirty-eighth year, Gustavus 
Adolphus, the greatest sovereign of his age, 
whose best title to immortality is that he set a 
bound to religious persecution. 

Wallenstein, instead of profiting by the con- 
fusion caused by the death of Gustavus Adol- 
phus, remained inactive, and entered into 
negotiations with France for the crown of 
Bohemia. This furnished his enemies at the 



imperial court with sufficient ground ot ac- 
cusation. Without affording him an oppor- 
tunity of being heard in his own defence the 
emperor removed Wallenstein from his com- 
mand, and on February 25, 1634, he was assas- 
sinated at Eger by some of his own officers. 
He was succeeded in his command by the 
emperor's eldest son, Ferdinand, who m con- 
junction with the Bavarians (under /o/m von 
Werth) defeated the Swedish generals, Saxe- 
Weimar and Horn, at Nordlingen, in Suabia. 
Saxe-Weimar fled to the Rhine, Horn was 
taken prisoner, and Suabia, Franconia, and the 
Palatinate were occupied by detachments of 
the imperial army. 

As little assistance could now^ be expected 

from their Swedish allies, the Protestants of 

Southwestern Germany were compelled to 

purchase the protection of France by the sac- 

I rifice of Upper Alsace. 

Peace of Prague (May 30, 1635).— The con- 
dition of discreditable dependence on a foreign 
power in which the Protestants of Germany 
now found themselves, was fully recognized 
by the Elector of Saxony, who, in the spirit ot 
a true patriot, set on foot such negotiations as 
terminated in the Peace of Prague. All ;//^^/- 
ate possessions of the Church secularized before 
the Peace of Passau should remain to the 
Protestants forever, and all other mediate pos- 
sessions and such immediate ones as had been 
confiscated since the Peace of Passau should re- 
main to them for forty years ; before the expi-^ 
ration of which term a mixed commission was to 
129 



PEACE OF PRAGtrE. 



settle how such property should be proceeded ! of Rocroy (May i8, 1643), five days after the 
with at the end of it. The hereditary right of | accession of Louis XIV. ; a success which 
the House of Habsburg to the Bohemian 
crown was acknowledged ; Lusatia was ceded 
to the Elector of Saxony as a Boiiemian fief, 
and his son was invested with the administra- 
tion of Magdeburg. Pomerania was to be 
made over to the Elector of Brandenburg in 
case he acceded to the treaty. 

The Elector of Saxony was to assist in ex- 
pelling the Swedes from Germany. In the 
following year, accordingly, the Saxons joined 
the Imperialists under Count Hatsfeld, for the 
purpose of driving the Swedes under Baner 
from Northern Germany, and were utterly 
defeated by that general near Wittstock, in 
Brandenburg (1636). 

The Franco-Swedish Period (1636-1648). 
— Richelieu, who since 1624 governed France, 
had found the kingdom abandoned to Spanish 
influence, disturbed by the princes and by the 
nobles, by the queen-mother and by the Prot- 
estants. He adopted the system of Henry IV., 
with this difference : that he had no anterior 
obligation, no motive of gratitude to force 
him to keep terms with the Protestants. He 
took from them La Rochelle, by throwing 
across the sea a stone dyke more than half a 
mile long ; he conquered, disarmed, and nev- 
ertheless reassured them (1627-1628). His 
next measures were against the princes and 
nobles. He turned the mother and brother 
of Louis XIII. out of France, and struck off 
the heads of a Marillac and a Montmorency 
(1630-1632). There remained for him only to 
gild these internal victories with the glory of 
foreign conquests. 

First he purchased (in October, 1635) Bern- 
ard of Saxe-Weimar, the best pupil of Gus- 
tavus Adolphus, with his army. This was the 
commencement of the short but brilliant career 
which ended with Bernard's death in 1639, 
w^hose motives, however, could only have been 
selfish. He had hoped to cut out for himself, 
amid the chaos of confusion, a kingdom, or 
at least a duchy. 

At about the same time Richelieu allied 
himself with the Dutch to share the Spanish 
portion of the Netherlands, while at the other 
end of France he set himself to recover Rous- 
sillon. An alliance with the Duke of Savoy 
secured for him a passage into Italy. 

Everything became easy for Richelieu from 
the moment that the revolt of Catalonia and 
Portugal reduced Spain to a defensive war. 
The House of Braganza ascended the throne 
of Portugal with the applause of all Europe 
(1640). The French, already victorious in 
Italy, took Arras and Thionville, in the Neth- 
erlands. The great Conde gained the battle 



a success wnicn re- 
assured France, deprived by death of Riche- 
lieu (December, 1642) and Louis XIII. (May, 

1643)- 

The great war had then for the second time 
changed its character. To the fanaticism of 
Tilly and his master, Ferdinand II.,, to the 
revolutionary genius of Wallenstein and Saxe- 
Weimar, had succeeded skilful tacticians such 
as Piccolomini and Merci, generals of the 
emperor; and the pupils of Gustavus Adol- 
phus, Baner, Torstenson, and Wrangel. As war 
had become a profession for so many years, 
peace became more and more difficult. France 
entirely occupied in securing her conquests of 
Lorraine and Alsace, refused to help Sweden 
any longer against Austria. At one time 
Torstenson hoped to succeed without the as- 
sistance of France. This paralytic general, 
who astonished Europe with the rapidity of 
his movements, had renewed the glory of Gus- 
tavus by his victory at Leipsic (1642) ; in the 
Danes he had struck down the secret friends 
of the emperor (1643-1645) ; an alliance with 
the Transylvanians permitted him to pene- 
trate at length into Austria (1645). The de- 
fection of the Transylvanians and the death 
of Torstenson saved the emperor. The war 
about this time seemed to be carried on 
merely for its own sake, without any great or 
even definite object, only to gratify the cupid- 
ity or ambition of a few leaders, excited by 
the subtle and selfish policy of France. 

Negotiations, however, had been opened al- 
ready in 1636, and the accession of Emperor 
Ferdinand III. (1637) had appeared likely to 
favor them. Preliminaries of peace were 
signed in 1642. But the death of Richelieu 
reawakened the hopes of the House of Habs- 
burg and postponed the peace. The victories 
of Conde at Freiburg (1644), Nordlingen (1645), 
and Lens (August 20, 1648), that of Turenne 
and Wrangel at Zusmarshausen (May 17, 1648), 
and finally the seizure (July 31, 1648) of the 
Kleinseite (small town) of Prague by Konigs- 
marck, where an enormous booty was captured, 
all these disasters determined the emperor to 
conclude peace. And thus, sinp-i 
the thirty years war was 
place where it had broken out. 

Peace of Westphalia. — Toward the end of 
September, 1648, the conferences atOsnabriick 
were transferred to Mlinster, where, after nego- 
tiations which had lasted between four and 
five years, were signed the two treaties of West- 
phalia. The objects of the peace were twofold : 
First, the settlement of the affairs of the em- 
pire ; and second, the satisfaction of France and 
Sweden. 



.j^'-ularly enough, 
finished at the same 



130 



PEACE OF WESTPHALIA — CHARLES I. 



I. The settle me7it of the Holy Roman Empb'e. 
The sovereignty of the dififerent German 

States, in the whole extent of their territory, 
was formally recognized. Indemnities were 
granted to several States ; and in order to dis- 
charge them many ecclesiastical possessions 
were secularized. The son of the Count Pala- 
tine recovered the Lower Palatinate (the Higher 
Palatinate remained Bavarian), and an eighth 
electorate was created in his favor. 

II. The Satisfaction of Fra?ice and Sweden. 

France obtained Alsace, the three bishop- 
rics (Metz^ Tout, and Verduii), and the keys of 
Germany and Piedmont, Philipsburg and Pig- 
nerol. Plate XLIL 

Sweden obtained part of Pomerania, Wis- 
mar, and the bishoprics Bremen {jiot the city) 
and Werden, as secular duchies, and $5,000,- 
000. Sweden became also a member of the 
German Diet, with three votes. Plate XLV. 

The republics of the United Netherlands 
and of Switzerland were recognized as inde- 
pendent of the empire. 

Thus the policy of France and Sweden had 
been entirely successful. These countries, be- 
sides raising up a counterpoise to the power 
of the Emperor in Germany itself, had suc- 
ceeded in aggrandizing themselves at the ex- 
pense of the empire. Sweden, indeed, in the 
course of the next century, was to lose most 
of her acquisitions ; but France had at last 
seated herself, for more than two coming cen- 
turies, on the Rhine ; the House of Habsburg 
lost the preponderance it had enjoyed since 
the time of Charles V., which was now to be 
transferred to her rival. Soon, after a short 
period of miserable civil war, we shall have to 
contemplate France as the leading European 
power, a post which she mainly owed to the 
genius and policy of Cardinal de Richelieu. 

ENGLAND DURING THE THIRTY YEARS' 
WAR. 

Closing Years of James I. — During the 
latter part of James' reign he was greatly in- 
fluenced by George Villiers, better known as 
Duke of Buckingham. Originally the son of 
a Leicestershire knight, he became the first 
noble in the land. All the principal offices of 
the State were filled with his creatures, much 
to the disgust of the nation. He was bound 
to the Prince of Wales by a common interest 
in one or two of these employments which fill 
up daily life : for instance, by fondness for art 
and art collections, but principally by the 
companionship into which they had been 
thrown, first in the cabinet of James I., who 
weighed his conclusions by their assistance, 
and afterward in their journev to Spain. 
James, under Buckingham's influence, did re- 



fuse to join the Evangelical Union to help his 
son-in-law, the Count Palatine. But he hoped 
to assist him to recover his patrimony by 
forming a marriage between the Prince of 
Wales and a Spanish Infanta. Nothing came 
of this projected Anglo-Spanish alliance, sealed 
by a marriage, against the Emperor. The 
final answer of the Spanish Government was : 
" The King of Spain 7nust never fight against the 
Emperor.'" 

The Prince of Wales finally married (1625) 
Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of 
France. 

Charles I. and the Parliament (1625- 
1629). — When James I. died, in 1625, Bucking- 
ham became, if possible, more completely 
master of England than he had been before. 
He would take no counsel which was not in 
accordance with his own wishes. In the first 
two years of the reign of Charles I. a war with 
France was added to the war with Spain, while 
expedition after expedition was sent forth to 
Cadiz (1625) and to Rhe (1627), each one to a 
disaster more ignominious than the last. The 
House of Commons, stirred to action by the 
incapacity of the government, demanded, under 
Eliot's leadership, that the honor of England 
should no longer be committed to hands so 
rash. Charles stood by his friend, struggled 
to carry on the war by forced loans and by 
imprisonment of those who refused to pay 
them. He simply succeeded in stripping him- 
self of all the authority which Elizabeth had 
derived from her position as representative of 
the nation. 

When Buckingham was murdered in 1628 
that authority had passed irrevocably into the 
hands of the House of Commons, which had 
just driven the king to renounce, by his assent 
to the Petition of Right., his claim to levy taxes 
without its consent, and to imprison without 
the consent of the judges. 

Charles I. without Parliament. — The 
king determined to rule without the uncon- 
trollable Parliament, and in 1629 began a 
period of eleven years in which Parliament 
was not allowed to meet. 

His object was to manage Englishmen as he 
thought best, not to -help them to manage 
themselves better than they knew how to do 
without assistance. In the State he provided 
a fleet for the defence of the country, not by 
rousing the patriotic feelings of Englishmen, 
but by levying ship-money by his own author- 
ity. This enforcement of ship-money led the 
way to a breach of the constitutional practice 
which had been sanctioned by the Petition of 
Right, that money should not be taken without 
a parliamentary grant. 

But the resistance to the principle was much 



131 



1648 



PLATE XLV. 




THE LONG PARLIAMENT — CROMWELL. 



Strengthened by the fact that it involved re- 
sistance to the payment of money. 

Charles I. and Scotland. — The special 
object of the first two Stuart kings was to 
complete, on Tudor's principles, the institu- 
tions of Church and State in England, and to 
extend the same to Scotland. But they had 
thereby awakened, in the land of their birth, a 
spirit of resistance at once aristocratic and re- 
ligious. The king hoped to crush the Scot- 
tish movement by the strength of royal influ- 
ence in England ; but the consequences were 
the very opposite, for the movement spread 
into England also. Twice (1639 and 1640) he 
attempted to bring the force of England to 
bear upon the Scots, who drove away his 
bishops and claimed to settle their affairs with- 
out his concurrence. Twice he failed entirely. 
Ensflishmen would not fi2:ht in such a cause. 
At last the Scottish army gained possession of 
Northumberland and Durham, and it was 
found necessary to summon a Parliament 
which would find him money to buy them off. 

The L#ong Parliament (1640-1660). — The 
Parliament which was now convened (Novem- 
ber, 1640) was naturally not disposed to find 
the king money without demanding anything 
in return. Wentworth, now Earl of Strafford, 
who had been the most energetic maintainer 
of the king's system, was brought to the block 
(May, 1641). The Star Chamber and the 
Ecclesiastical Commission were swept away. 
The right to levy ship-money and customs 
without a parliamentary grant was abandoned 
by the king, and, as far as the law could bind 
him, Charles was reduced to act in accord- 
ance with the wishes of his Parliament. He 
even assented to an act depriving himself of 
the power of dissolving the existing Parliament 
without its own consent. But he retained the 
right of refusing his assent to the bills ac- 
cepted by it, so that he could, without any 
effort of his own, put a stop to all further 
legislation. He also retained still the com- 
mand of the militia, which furnished the only 
military force then known, and the appoint- 
ment of the officers by which it was controlled. 
Then old attachment to the monarchy and 
conservative dislike of change drew to him 
many supporters, especially among the country 
gentry. If he had acted straightforwardly 
public opinion might have rallied around 
him. Instead of that he engaged in one in- 
trigue after another, and at last his attack on 
the Five Members (January 4, 1642) shocked 
those who feared what he might do if he re- 
gained his old authority. Therefore the Par- 
liament assumed the royal prerogative, ex- 
pelled the bishops from the Upper House, and 
submitted nineteen propositions to the king. 



demanding, among other things, the power 
of appointing and dismissing ministers, of 
naming guardians for the royal children, and 
of controlling military, civil, and religious af- 
fairs. These propositions being indignantly 
rejected, a Co7ninittee of Public Safety was ap- 
pointed by Parliament (July, 1642), and Essex 
made captain-general of a Parliamentary army 
of 20,000 foot and 4,000 cavalry. Three weeks 
later (August 2 2d) Charles unfurled the royal 
standard at Nottingham. 

The Civil "War.— The Parliamentary army 
(in which Oliver Cromwell soon distinguished 
himself) obtained two victories (Marston Moor, 
July 2, 1644, and Naseby, June 14, 1645) over 
the ill-disciplined forces of the king, who 
sought an asylum among the Scotch and was 
delivered up by them to the English Parlia- 
ment (January3o, 1647). About thistime began 
the disputes between the Puritans, who were 
most influential in Parliament, and the Inde- 
pendents, who governed the army. The latter 
having obtained possession of the king's per- 
son, their leader, Cromwell, defeated the 
Scotch in the three days battle at Preston 
Pans (August 17-20, 1648), who had invaded 
England for the purpose of rescuing the king. 
It was now resolved to bring Charles to trial. 
The king, after a solemn trial, was publicly 
executed on the scaffold (January 29, 1649). 
The House of Peers as well as the monarchy 
w^as abolished, and the government of the 
kingdom conducted by the Commons. Crom- 
well gradually assumed the supreme power, 
both military and civil, and after reducing the 
royalists by his victories in Ireland, Scotland, 
and England, and reviving by his vigorous 
foreign policy the lustre of the English name, 
finally, in December, 1653, caused himself to 
be named Lord Protector. 

Crom well's Protectorate. — Cromwell re- 
solved to remain that which he was, the gen- 
eral of the victorious army, invested with the 
highest civil authority. For when once Par- 
liament had stripped the monarchy of the 
military authority, the army displayed a ten- 
dency to submit no longer even to Parliament. 
The civil authority became dependent upon 
the military. Cromwell took it in hand and 
resolved to uphold it against all opposition. 
He deemed it essential to bring all the active 
forces in the countrv into obedience to his 
will. 

Cromwell's foreign policy was as vigorous 
as his domestic. It was his hope, he used to 
say, to make the name of Englishman as much 
respected as ever that of Roman had been. 
He sought to obtain a footing on the Conti- 
nent, both as a means of extending English 
trade and of supporting the Protestant inter- 



132 



AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 



est in Europe. For his own lifetime Cromwell 
was able to keep the power in his hands, but 
he could not hand it dovyn to his successor. 

Richard Cromwell succeeded his father 
(September 3, 1658). He was compelled by 
the army to dissolve the Parliament (April 22, 
1659), and after a reign of eight months re- 
tired into private life (May, 1659). The state 
of anarchy which followed his resignation 
was terminated by General Monk, commander- 
in-chief in Scotland, who returned to London 
and established a parliament which recalled 
Charles II. (May, 1660). 

Character of the English Restoration. — 
The government of the restoration, as it 
formed itself under the influence of Hyde, 



who shortly became Lord Chancellor Claren- 
don, was an attempt to resuscitate the political 
theories of the minority of 1641. King and 
parliament were to work forever in harmony 
together. The king, being entirely dependent 
upon parliament for his revenue, would never 
be able to strike out a separate line of action ; 
while the parliament, solemnly declaring that 
in no possible case was resistance to the king 
allowed, seemed to have placed it out of its 
own power to strike out a line of action in- 
dependent of the king. In point of fact, this 
excellent system of mechanical balance would 
remain in working order just so long as king 
and parliament were united in feeling and 
policy, and not a moment longer. 



THE FRENCH ASCENDENCY. 



AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 

Condition of France about the Middle 
of the Seventeenth Century. — In 1648 
France was the dominant power in Christen- 
dom. The Thirty Years' War had broken the 
strength of all the nations around her. She 
alone profited by the general wreck. Her com- 
pact and fertile territory, the natural activity 
and enterprise of her people, and the rapid 
growthof hercommerceand manufactures were 
sources of natural wealth which even its heavy 
taxation failed to check, and the policy which 
gathered all local power into the hands of the 
crown gave it, for the moment, an air of good 
government and a command over its internal 
resources which no other country could boast 
of. Now followed the most complete triumph 
of royalty, the most perfect acquiescence of 
a people in the sovereignty of one man, that 
had ever existed. Richelieu had subdued the 
nobles and the Protestants ; and the Fronde 
ruined the parliament by showing what it was 
worth. This civil war of the Fronde was a 
last attempt of the Parliament of Paris to op- 
pose the Court by armed resistance. It was 
especially directed against Cardinal Mazarin, 
who, after 1642, conducted the government. 
On his death (1661) only the king and the peo- 
ple were left standing in France ; the latter 
lived in the former. 

The War of Devolution. — The young 
Louis XIV. was perfectly suited for this mag- 
nificent part. His cold and dignified counte- 
nance reigned over France for fifty years with 
unimpaired majesty. When, in 1665, Philip 
IV. of Spain died, his son-in-law, Louis XIV., 
laid claim to Belgium and Burgundy on the 



ground that, being the personal estates of the 
royal family of Spain, their descent ought to 
be regulated by the local '^ droit de devolution.'' 
The renunciation of her heritage which his 
wife, Maria Theresa, had made, was, Louis 
claimed, invalid, since the stipulated dowry 
had never been paid. 

The French army entered (1667) Flanders, 
which was taken in two months. In January, 
1668, the troops defiled through Champagne 
into Burgundy, and fell upon Franche Comte, 
which was entirely occupied in seventeen days. 
This rapid success alarmed Holland, which did 
not care to have the "great king" for a neigh- 
bor. By the exertions of Jan de Witt and Sir 
William Temple, England, Holland, and Swe- 
den concluded the triple alliance (January 23, 
1668), which forced Louis to acquiesce in the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was obliged to 
content himself with French Flanders, and to 
restore Franche Comte (the county of Bur- 
gundy) to Spain. 

The War with Holland. — The course of 
the Dutch in these transactions had inflamed 
the hatred of Louis against them, a hatred 
made still stronger by the refuge given by the 
provinces to political writers who annoyed him 
with their abusive publications. To gain his 
purpose, the destruction or the humiliation of 
Holland, Louis secured the disruption of the 
triple alliance by buying, for a sum down, the 
alliance of England and Sweden. Suddenly 
(June, 1672) 100,000 men moved from France 
toward Holland, and overran Gelderland, 
Utrecht, and Over-Yssel without opposition. 
It was only by skill and desperate courage that 
the Dutch ships, under De Ruyter, held the 
English fleet, under the Duke of York, at bay 



133 



REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF T^ANTES. 



in an obstinate battle off the coast of Suffolk. 
Till almost the eve of the struggle the Dutch 
had been wrapt in a false security, which only 
broke down when the glare of the French 
watch-fires was seen from the walls of Amster- 
dam. 

De Witt and his brother were murdered in a 
popular tumult, and their fall called William, 
the Prince of Orange, to the head of the re- 
public, who armed against Louis, Spain, and 
Austria. He next separated England from 
France. Gradually, nearly the whole of 
Europe declared themselves against Louis 
XIV. (1674). It was then necessary to abandon 
the Dutch fortresses. As usual, compensation 
was made at the expense of Spain. Louis 
XIV. took Franche Comte. This second con- 
quest had cost a little more trouble than the 
first (in 1668) ; but it was definitive. The two 
Burgundies were no more to be separated, 
and France was never again to lose her fron- 
tier of the Jura. 

The struggle against Europe was contin- 
ued until 1678 (Peace of Nimwegen). France 
emerged from it successfully, thanks to the ge- 
nius of hergreatgenerals — CondeandTurenne. 
The Peace of Nimwegen was the culminating 
point of Louis XIV.'s glory. Louis had been 
supported in this war by Sweden, which was, 
as usual, in the French pay. When Frederick 
William, the Elector of Brandenburg, joined 
the imperial army on the Rhine, the French 
declared that they would pay the Swedes no 
more subsidies unless they compelled the 
elector to withdraw his force from the allies. 
The Swedes accordingly occupied Branden- 
burg, and allowed their troops every license 
of plunder and outrage. The elector was qui- 
etly abiding his time. Early in June, 1675, 
he suddenly went with his army to Magdeburg. 
By a rapid march the Swedes, cantoned on the 
right bank of the Havel, were surprised and 
beaten at Rathenow (June 25th). A few days 
after (28th), the elector gained a decisive vic- 
tory, at Fehr-bellin, over the main body of the 
Swedish army, in consequence of which the 
invaders were compelled hastily to evacuate 
Brandenburg. 

The Chambers of Reunion. — After the 
Peace of Nimwegen, Louis XIV. reigned over 
Europe. The proof of sovereignty is jurisdic- 
tion. He chose that other powers should rec- 
ognize the decisions of his parliaments. He 
established Chambers of Reunion which should 
determine what were the dependencies of the 
acquired districts, that they might be united 
with them. One of those dependencies was 
the city of Strassburg in Alsace, which accord- 
ingly (1681) was declared to be a French 
town. 



The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 

— The rights of the Protestants in France had 
been fixed by the Edict of Nantes, granted 
in 1598 by Henry IV. It certified to them 
admission to all employments, tolerated their 
general assemblies, and granted them places 
of safety, the principal of which was La Ro- 
chelle. It was revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV. 
This revocation interdicted, throughout the 
whole kingdom, the exercise of the reformed 
religion. Emigration on the part of the Prot- 
estants was prohibited, under pain of the gal- 
leys and confiscation of property. 

More than a hundred thousand industrious 
families escaped, anyhow, from France ; and 
the foreign nations which received them with 
open arms (England, Holland, Brandenburg) 
became enriched by their industry at the ex- 
pense of their native country. 

Devastation of the Palatinate. — Louis 
XIV. claimed, in the name of his sister-in-law, 
Charlotte Elizabeth, Duchess of Orleans, a 
portion of the Palatinate, invoking in this, as 
in the case of Flanders in 1665, civil against 
feudal rights. The League of Augsburg was 
formed to protest against this claim. Louis' 
answer was the frightful devastation of the 
Palatinate, by order of Louvois, executed by 
Melac (October, 1688). This, added to the 
countenance given by Louis to the exiled 
James II., changed the " League of Augs- 
burg" into the ''Grand Alliance." 

The English Revolution. — When Charles 
II. died (February, 1685), his brother, James 
II., an avowed Catholic, ascended the throne. 
Setting his mind on obtaining liberty of wor- 
ship and equality of civil rights for his fellow- 
Catholics, he issued a Declaration of Indulgence^ 
by which, of his own authority, he set aside 
the effect of all laws imposing restrictions on 
religion. For a time Englishmen calmly sub- 
mitted ; for, whatever James might be, the heir 
to the throne, his daughter Mary, was a con- 
firmed Protestant. Her husband, William of 
Orange, was equally a confirmed Protestant, 
and was the head of the opposition on the 
Continent to Louis XIV. James was advanced 
in life, and it was certain that whatever he 
might do his successor would undo. But 
when, suddenly, it was announced that a Prince 
of Wales had been born, hope could no lon- 
ger be entertained that all would go well as 
soon as James' life was at an end. Leading 
men of both the great parties invited the 
Prince of Orange to come to defend the liber- 
ties of England. 

William landed at Torbay on November 5, 
1688 ; on December i8th he was domiciled 
at St. James', his march having been inter- 
rupted only by one or two trifling skirmishes. 



134 



1668—1678 A. D. 



Plate XLVL 




WAR OF THE GRAND ALLIANCE. 



Meanwhile, James had fled. On December 
28th the fugitive monarch arrived at St. Ger- 
main, and found in Louis XIV. a generous 
protector. On February 13, 1689, William 
and his consort Mary solemnly accepted the 
English crown, the parliament having pre- 
viously voted (January 23d) that James, by 
withdrawing himself out of the kingdom, had 
abdicated the government, and that the throne 
was thereby vacant. In Scotland the author- 
ity of tlie new king was established after a 
slight attempt at resistance. Ireland, from 
the religion and disposition of the people, was 
naturally more favorable to James' cause, and 
it was here that, with French aid, he was en- 
abled to dispute the ground with William. On 
March 12, 1689, James landed at Kinsale and 
found himself at the head of a large but ill- 
armed and ill-disciplined force, which (July i, 
1690) was completed defeated by William in 
the battle of the Boyne. 

But this hostile act on the part of Louis 
(who had furnished James the means for the 
invasion of Ireland) caused William, as King of 
England, to declare war against France (May 
17, 1689). 

The War of the "Grand Alliance" 
against France (i 689-1 697). — The war was 
carried on for almost nine years with mighty 
efforts on all sides. Tlie French gained three 
brilliant victories, Luxembourg defeating the 
Dutch at Fleurus (June 30, 1690), Steenkerk 
(July 24, 1692), and Neerwiiiden (July 29, 1693). 
Savoy, the duke of which had joined the al- 
liance against France, was conquered by a 
French army under General Catinat. The 
exhausted state of his finances, and the diver- 
sion of the ambitious plans of Louis XIV. 
into a new channel by the immediate prospect 
of the death, without issue, of Charles II. of 
Spain, on the one side, and the mutual mis- 
trust of the allies, on the other, hastened the 
conclusion of the Peace of Ryswick (September 
20, 1697). By the terms of this peace Louis 
restored all his conquests and all the reunited 
territories, except Alsace, to their legitimate 
possessors, and recognized William III. as King 
of Great Britain, Thus terminated this vast 
war, in which the two parties had displayed, 
on land and sea, forces incomparably greater 
than modern Europe had ever seen before in 
motion. The armies acquired frightful pro- 
portions. France, in order to maintain her- 
self against the coalition, had nearly doubled 
her military status since the war with Holland. 
The result of these g-io^antic efforts had been 



to her a barren h( 



Alone asfainst almost 



all Europe, she had continued to conquer ; 
but she had conquered without increasing her 
power. For the first time, on the contrary. 



since the accession of Richelieu, she had lost 
ground and receded in the work of her terri- 
torial completion. She found herself, in 1697, 
much within the limits of 1684, and returned 
to the limits of 1678, except tliat she had ac- 
quii'ed a great defensive position, Strassburg, 
in exchange for offensive positions, which was 
advantageous to a true policy. 

The Spanish Succession War (1702- 
1715). — After the Peace of Ryswick the ques- 
tion of the Spanish succession formed the 
chief occupation of all the European cabinets- 
Charles II., the last male descendant of the 
Emperor Charles V., was likely to die without 
issue. 

The Castilians did not care particularly 
who, among the foreigners who claimed the 
succession, should mount the throne. Their 
paramount object was the integrity of -the em- 
pire of which Castile was the head, and the 
prince who should appear to be most likely to 
preserve that integrity inviolated would have 
the best right to the allegiance of every true 
Castilian. 

No man of sense, however, out of Castile, 
when he considered the nature of the inheri- 
tance and the situation of the claimants, could 
doubt that a partition was inevitable. Among 
those claimants three stood pre-eminent — the 
Dauphin, the Emperor Leopold, and the Elec- 
toral Prince of Bavaria. If the question had 
been simply one of pedigree, the right of the 
Dauphin would have been incontestable. Louis 
XIV. was at once son of the elder daughter 
of Philip III. and husband of the elder 
daughter of Philip IV. His eldest son, the 
Dauphin, would, therefore, in the regular 
course of things, have been his uncle's succes- 
sor. But the Infanta Maria Theresa, mother 
of the Dauphin, as well as Infanta Anne, 
mother of Louis XIV., had both, at the time 
of their marriages, renounced, for herself and 
lier posterity, all pretensions to the Spanish 
crown. These solemn renunciations were, 
however, declared null and void by the parlia- 
ment of Paris. The claim of the Emperor 
Leopold (besides being the representative of 
the younger branch of the Habsburgs) was 
derived from his mother, Mary Anne, younger 
daughter of Philip IV. and aunt of Charles II., 
and could not, therefore, if nearness of blood 
alone were to be regarded, come in competi- 
tion with the claim of the Dauphin. But Leo- 
pold's mother had expressly reserved her right 
of inheritance. 

The third claimant was a child of tender 
age — Joseph, son of the Elector of Bavaria. 
His mother, the Electress Marie Antoinette, 
was the only child of the Emperor Leopold 
by his first wife — Margaret, a younger sister of 



135 



THE SPANISH SUCCESSIOIS' WAR. 



Charles II. The electoral prince was there- 
fore nearer in blood to the Spanish throne than 
his grandfather, the emperor, or than the sons 
whom the emperor had by his second wife. 
Infanta Margaret had, indeed, at the time of 
her marriage, renounced her rights ; but this 
renunciation had been cancelled by the will of 
Philip IV., which had declared that, failing his 
issue male, Margaret and her posterity would 
be entitled to inherit his crown. With the 
view of anticipating a partition of the Spanish 
monarchy as contemplated by France, Eng- 
land, and Holland, Charles II., by will, de- 
clared the Electoral Prince of Bavaria univer- 
sal heir to all his dominions. On the sudden 
death of the young prince (February 6, 1699), 
Charles signed a testament by which he de- 
clared Philip of Anjou, second son of the Dau- 
phin, as his successor, under the conditions that 
Spain should remain an undivided and inde- 
pendent monarchy ; and that, if Philip should 
not consent to this stipulation, the crown 
should devolve on the Archduke Charles: 
Soon afterward (November i, 1700), Charles II. 
died. His testament, after long deliberations, 
was accepted by Louis XIV., who thus anni- 
hilated all the treaties which he had entered 
into with the other European powers rela- 
tive to the Spanish succession. William III. 
showed himself disposed to be satisfied, even 
with this new arrangement, provided Philip 
V. would renounce his title to the crown of 
France. James II., the exiled King of Eng- 
land, died just at this juncture at St. Germain 
(September 16, 1701), and left a son whom the 
parliament had excluded from the succession, 
and whose pretensions had been passed over 
in silence at the Peace of Ryswick. Louis 
XIV. acknowledged this pretender .as James 
III., King of Great Britain and Ireland ; by 
which he offended at the same time the na- 
tional pride of the Englishmen and King Will- 
iam, who was all-powerful in Holland and 
was the soul of European policy. The Emper- 
or Leopold now obtained assistance in his op- 
position to the claims of Philip V.; his second 
son, Charles, was declared King of Spain by 
the title of Charles HI. Philip V. was ac- 
knowledged as king at Madrid and in Castile ; 
Charles HI. in Aragon, Catalonia, and in the 
Balearic Islands. 

After the death of William HI. (March 8, 
1702) three men were at the head of the great 
alliance against France — Eugene, Prince of 
Savoy, imperial general ; the Duke of Marl- 
borough, English general ; and A. Heinsius, 
grand pensionary (leading statesman) of Hol- 
land. 

Prince Eugene and Marlborough had this 
great advantage in war, that they were su- 



preme in their own countries ; in the summer 
they fought, and in the winter they governed 
and negotiated. During the first campaigns 
the allies reaped no signal advantage over 
France, notwithstanding that she was fighting 
on all her frontiers and at home, against the 
world and against herself. 

The Calvinists of the Cevennes had been in 
arms ever since 1702. Berwick and Villars 
were sent to subdue them. While Villars was 
away in the Cevennes the French army, which 
had invaded Germany under Tallard^ suffered, 
near Blenheim, one of the most terrible de- 
feats ever experienced by France. They had 
entered Germany incautiously, and were on 
the road to Vienna when Marlborough and 
Eugene cut them off. They were defeated be- 
tween Hochstadt and Blindheim {Blenheim)^ 
with such terrible slaughter that of an army of 
sixty thousand men scarcely one-third reached 
the Rhine after the engagement (August 13, 
1704). The whole of Bavaria was overrun by 
the conquerors, who treated the inhabitants 
with the utmost severity. 

Villars arrived just in time to cover Lorraine, 
and prevent the invasion of France. 

After the day of Blenheim the French army 
seemed to be finally deserted by that good 
fortune which had so long been their attend- 
ant. France was suffering dreadfully under 
the prejudices and passions of the king, and 
from the effects of his haughty and perse- 
cuting spirit. His finances were in the utmost 
state of exhaustion and disorder, and were no 
longer capable of furnishing clothes and pro- 
vision for the army. 

Louis was willing to accept peace on almost 
any conditions. He consented to relinquish 
the pretensions of his family to the Spanish 
crown, and to surrender Alsace ; to banish the 
pretender, and to recognize the Protestant 
succession in England. But the allies, ren- 
dered insolent by success, demanded that he 
should send an army into Spain for the pur- 
pose of deposing his own grandson. On re- 
ceiving this insult the king manifested a de- 
gree of perseverance that justified his claim 
to the surname of the G?'eat, and the war w^as 
accordingly prolonged until a party hostile to 
the Duke of Marlborough acquired the ascend- 
ency in England (August, 17 10). The oppo- 
site party (the Tories) came into power, and, 
for the purpose of completing the ruin of 
Marlborough, they inclined Queen Anne to- 
ward peace. The death of the Emperor Joseph 
(1711) assisted them in their designs. The 
Archduke Charles, his brother, the competitor 
of Philip v., obtained the imperial crown, and 
incurred, in his turn, the reproach of aspiring 
to universal monarchy. 



13() 



THE PEACE OF UTRECHT. 



From this time England was no longer in- 
terested in supporting his claims to the throne 
of Spain, and agreed to a truce with France. 
The Grand Alliance was dissolved, and a con- 
gress was opened at Utrecht. Dissensions 
between the allies caused the conclusion of 
separate treaties of peace, which are compre- 
hended under the name of the Peace of 
Utrecht (April, 17 13). 

The grandson of Louis XIV. remained King 
of Spain, but Italy and Flanders, two of the 
brightest jewels in the crown of that mon- 
archy, were alienated. Milan, Mantua, Naples, 
and the Spanish Netherlands were transferred 
to Charles, who, since his brother's death, was 
no longer called the Third of Spain, but the 
Sixth of the Emperors. Victor Amadeus, of 
Savoy, obtained Sicily, with the title of king. 
Philip V. was compelled to leave Gibraltar in 
possession of the English, this fortress having 
been surrendered by the Marquis de Salinas 
to eight thousand English and Dutch troops 
as they were conducting the Archduke Charles 
to Spain (1704). 

This acquisition, so flattering to the national 
pride of the English, was really valuable, as it 
placed the entrance of the Mediterranean in 
their power, and rendered their friendship im- 
portant to the northern nations who carry on 
trade in that sea. 

Thus was at length terminated the War of 
the Spanish Succession, the greatest which had 
agitated Europe since the Crusades. Its effect 
was to modify considerably the situation of the 
different European states. Spain herself w^as 
apparently the greatest loser, having been de- 
prived of her dominions in the Netherlands 
and Italy. But, on the other hand, she re- 
tained her American possessions, and the loss 
of her outlying territories seems rather to have 
strengthened her. At all events, it is certain 
that from this period she began slowly to re- 



vive, and the decrease in her population, which 
had been gradually going on since the time of 
Emperor Charles V., was now arrested. 

Austria acquired the greater part of those 
territories of which Spain was deprived ; yet, 
as these acquisitions lay not contiguous to 
her, it may be doubted whether they were not 
rather a cause of weakness than of strength, 
by increasing her danger in a greater ratio 
than they multiplied her resources. France 
lost a portion of the frontier which she had 
formerly acquired, as well as her influence in 
Germany — the fear with which she had in- 
spired the different states, driving them to 
unite themselves more closely with Austria. 
But these losses were nothing in comparison 
with her internal ills — the disorder of her 
finances, and the exhaustion of her population. 
After the Peace of Utrecht, France, though 
still one of the principal elements of the Euro- 
pean system, could no longer be reckoned the 
dominant power. The influence and repu- 
tation of England, on the contrary, were much 
increased by the results of the war, in which 
she had proved herself a counterbalance to 
the power of France and Spain. 

Neither Louis XIV. nor Queen Anne long 
survived the Peace of Utrecht. Anne died of 
apoplexy, August i, 17 14, a sovereign as re- 
markable for her nullity as her rival Louis 
was for engrossing the state in his own per- 
son. She was succeeded by the Elector of Han- 
ov^er, wuth the title of George I. Louis XIV. 
survived Anne thirteen months. He died at 
Versailles, September i, 17 15. He had lived 
seventy-seven years, reigned seventy-two, gov- 
erned fifty-four. It was the longest as well as 
the greatest reign in French history. France 
prospered under Louis XIV. as long as he 
continued the idea of Richelieu ; it suffered, 
then declined, when he became unfaithful 
to it. 



EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE FRENCH ASCENDENCY. 



THE BIPONTINE FAMILY ON THE SWED- 
ISH THRONE. 

Position of Sweden. — During the wars of 
Louis XIV., in Western Europe, a series of 
wars scarcely less important in their effects, 
and even more extraordinary in their circum- 
stances, had been going on in the north and 
east, involving Sweden, Denmark, Poland, and 
Russia. At the beginning of this period 
Sweden was the great power in the north. 
The Peace of Westphalia had rewarded Swe- 



den for the exertions of Gustavus Adolphus 
by ceding to her Pomerania and other dis- 
tricts on the Baltic, and giving her three votes 
in the German diet. The ambition of Sweden, 
being once aroused, now appeared under the 
first three kings of the Bipontine family to 
menace all neighboring states more than un- 
der Gustavus Adolphus himself. 

Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus,. 
had acceded to the Swedish crown in 1644. 
Within ten years her embarrassments had be- 



137 



1713 A. D. 



PLATE XLVII. 




THE SWEDISH SUCCESSION WAR. 



come so great that she determined to throw 
the burden from her shoulders, and to trans- 
fer the crown to her cousin, Charles Gustavus, 
the son of the Count Palatine John Casimir, 
by Catherine, sister of Gustavus Adolphus, 
As King of Sweden he is known as Charles X. 

The Swedish Succession War. — Charles 
X. found the kingdom in a state in which he 
must either declare a bankruptcy or else en- 
deavor to free himself from his burdens by a 
war which should maintain itself. John Casi- 
mir II. of Poland, great-grandson of Gustavus 
Wasa, annoyed at seeing the Swedish crown, 
formerly worn by his ancestors, pass into a for- 
eign house, yet without the power to assert 
his claim to it by arms, was foolish enough to 
afford Charles X. a pretext for war by protest- 
ing against his accession. Charles invaded 
Poland. 

The rapidity with which his plan of invasion 
was executed placed the greater part of Po- 
land at his disposal, and compelled John Casi- 
mir to take refuge in Silesia; while Charles, in 
conjunction with his ally, Frederick William 
(the great elector), defeated the Poles in the 
battle of Warsaw, after three days of hard fight- 
ing (July 18-20, 1656). A confederation hav- 
ing been formed about this time for the main- 
tenance of the balance of power in the north 
of Europe, and war declared against Sweden 
by Frederick III., King of Denmark, Charles 
X. suddenly withdrew his forces from Poland, 
and, after rapidly overrunning the Danish 
continent, crossed the frozen Belt (January, 
1658) and subdued the islands also. A peace 
was now concluded at Roeskilde, by which Den- 
mark handed over to Sweden Schonen, Born- 
holm, and some other tracts. But Charles 
soon repented of the facility with which he 
had acceded to these conditions, and, landing 
unexpectedly on the coast of Seeland, laid 
siege to Copenhagen, which was enabled, by 
the assistance of a Dutch fleet, to resist suc- 
cessfully all the attacks of the Swedes. The 
death of the king and the minority of his son, 
Charles XI. (1660-1697), induced the Swedish 
Government to conclude a peace with Poland 
and her allies at Oliva. 

The Treaty of Oliva, whicli is as celebrated 
in the east of Europe as that of Westphalia 
in the west, was signed May 3, 1660. John 
Casimir renounced his claim to the Swedish 
crown, but was allowed to retain the title of 
King of Sweden, which, however, was not to 
be borne by his successors. Thus an end was 
put to the pretentions of the Polish Wasas. 

All Livonia beyond the Dwina was ceded to 
Sweden, but Poland retained the southern and 
western districts. Frederick William's eleva- 
tion to the rank of sovereisrn Duke of Prussia 



(by the treaty of Welau, September 19, 1657), 
was ratified by Sweden and Poland. 

THE HOUSE OF ROMANOFF ON THE 
RUSSIAN THRONE. 

The Anarchy (1598-1613). — With Feodor 
ended, in 1598, the dynasty of Rurik in the 
main line. Feodor's successor was Boris Godu- 
noff, his wife's brother. During his reign the 
agricultural population of Russia was bound 
to the soil. In ancient times the rural popula- 
tion was completely free, and every peasant 
might change his domicile on St. George's 
Day — that is to say, at the end of the agricult- 
ural year. The nobles were originally the ten- 
ants for life of the lands, which were granted 
as a reward for the service exacted from them. 
The revenues of the soil constituted their pay, 
and were to defray the expenses of their out- 
fit and equipment. But the land had no value 
without the hands that cultivated it ; the noble 
who was deserted by his peasants was ruined, 
and in no condition to serve the prince. In 
order that military service might be secured, 
it was necessary to hinder the emigration of 
the peasants. The interest of the noble, as 
well as the interest of the state, demanded that 
the liberty of coming and going should be re- 
strained, that the noble should be armed with 
a formidable authority over the peasant, and 
that the laborer should be fixed to the soil. 
This was done most effectually by Boris Godu- 
noff in 1601. 

Interminable troubles, in the midst of which 
Tsar Boris died, in 1605, were the conse- 
quences. During these disturbances the Poles 
succeeded in placing a member of their royal 
house (Ladislaus, elder brother of John Casi- 
mir) on the throne of the Ruriks (1610). ' But 
in the latter part of 161 1 the Russians rose 
like one man against the foreigners, and be- 
fore 161 2 not a single Pole remained on Rus- 
sian soil. The country, however, by this time 
was a desert, and nearly all traces of cultiva- 
tion had disappeared during the fifteen years 
of anarchy and confusion. 

The Romanoffs (1613-1762). — When on 
the edge of the abyss of entire annihilation, 
the boyars at last recovered themselves so far 
as to proceed to the election of a new tsar. 
Their choice, as well as that of the clergy and 
the deputies of the towns, fell upon Michaila 
Romanoffs the young son of Filarete, Metro- 
politan of Rostoff, and grandson, by the 
mother's side, of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, who, 
on July II, 1613, was crowned Tsar of the 
Russias. 

Michaila ascended the throne of an humili- 
ated empire ; all the institutions of Ivan and 
all the useful regulations that Boris attempted 



138 



THE ROMANOFFS — THE GREAT VIZIRS. 



to introduce had vanished, and the influence 
of Poland and Sweden was predominant. 
The young tsar conducted his measures for 
the restoration of the power of his kingdom 
chiefly in a peaceable and imperceptible man- 
ner. 

He was succeeded in 1645 by his son Alexis, 
then sixteen years of age. Russia had now 
recovered from her domestic troubles, and be- 
gan to feel her strength. Alexis commenced 
those plans for civilizing the Russians, and en- 
abling them to play a part in the affairs of 
Europe, which were afterward carried out by 
his son, Peter the Great. He partly organized 
his army on the European model, and intro- 
duced foreign artisans to instruct his people 
in handicraft and manufactures. His reign 
may be summed up in three facts : The reac- 
tion against Poland, and the union with Little 
Russia, or the Ukraine {i.e.^ the boundary^ for 
anciently the Ukraine formed a boundary be- 
tween Russia, Poland, Turkey, and Little Tar- 
tary) ; the struggle between the empire and 
the Cossacks ; and the first attempt at religi- 
ous reform. 

The Children of Tsar Alexis.— Tsar Al- 
exis died, January 29, 1676, leaving by his first 
marriage two sons, Feodor and Ivan, and six 
daughters, and by his second marriage one son, 
Peter (afterward called the Great), and two 
daughters. Feodor HI., who succeeded his 
father Alexis, reigned till his death (April, 
1682), when he was succeeded by Ivan, who, 
however, from his weakness both of mind and 
body, reigned only nominally. This Ivan sol- 
emnly renounced the crown in favor of his 
half-brother Peter. But as he was only in his 
tenth year, his mother w^as declared regent dur- 
ing his minority. Sophia, third sister of Feo- 
dor, however, succeeded in seizing the reins of 
government ; when she caused Ivan to be pro- 
claimed Tsar jointly with Peter, and herself 
to be invested with the regency. Her plan 
was to remove Peter, and virtually to rule the 
state in the name of the idiotic Ivan. But 
these plans were defeated by the courage and 
conduct of Peter, who, finally, caused Sophia 
to be shut up in a convent. Thus did Peter, 
at the age of seventeen, become sole ruler of 
the Russian Empire (1689). 

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE UNDER MO- 
HAMMED IV. (1648-1687). 

The Great Vizirs. — On the murder of Ibra- 
him I. (1648), his seven years old son, Moham- 
med IV., was raised to the throne. As no 
stronger foe than Venice attacked the Ottoman 
Empire, it lingered on through this period of 
renewed misery and weakness, until at length 
(1656) the Grand Vizirate was given to an aged 



statesman, Mohammed Kiuprili, who deserves 
to be honored as the founder of a dynasty of 
ministers that raised Turkey, in spite of the 
deficiencies of her princes, once more to com- 
parative power and prosperity and glory, and 
who long retarded, if they could not avert, the 
ultimate decline of the Ottoman Empire. The 
naval strength of the empire was revived ; the 
Dardanelles were fortified ;the Ottoman power 
beyond the Black Sea was strengthened by 
the erection of castles on the Dnieper and the 
Don, and though they were unable to take the 
town of Candia (the siege lasted twenty years, 
1648-1669) the islands of Lemnos and Tenedos 
were recovered from the Venetians. His own 
authority in the empire was unshaken until the 
last hour of his life, and he obtained for his 
still more celebrated son, Ahmed Kiuprili, the 
succession to the Grand Vizirate, who was 
the real ruler of Turkey from 1661 to his death 
in 1676. 

The Battle of St. Gotthard on the Raab 
(August I, 1664). — In the spring of 1663, 
Kiuprili pressed forward with a vast army to 
Buda. The Emperor Leopold sought to ar- 
rest his march by negotiations ; but the terms 
Kiuprili proposed (2,000,000 florins at once, 
and a yearly tribute) were too insulting to be 
entertained. Neuhausel (near Vienna) ca- 
pitulated to the Turks (September 24, 1663). 
Its fall was followed by that of several other 
fortresses, and it was the common opinion 
that in the following spring Kiuprili v/ould 
appear before Vienna. Christendom for once 
united against the common enemy. The Em- 
pire, Louis XIV., and Sweden sent troops. 
The Pope, Spain, and the Italian princes, gave 
money. The imperial general, Montecuculi, 
was enabled to arrest the progress of the 
Turks by the memorable battle of St. Gott- 
hard, a monastery on the Raab near the 
borders of Styria. Montecuculi having given 
the word ^'' Death or Victory,'' the Christians 
charged without waiting to be attacked. The 
Turks were routed and thrown into a dis- 
orderly flight, in which more than ten thousand 
of them were slain or drowned in the Raab. 
The Emperor, instead of pursuing this advan- 
tage, seized the occasion to conclude a twenty 
years' truce with the Ottomans. 

This battle was really of much greater mo- 
ment than Lepanto. For, though Lepanto 
broke the spell of Turkish success, it really did 
no material harm to the Turkish power. But 
St. Gotthard was really the beginning of a long 
series of victories over the Turks, on the part 
both of the Emperor and of other Christian 
powers. Yet it was like Lepanto in this, that, 
as the victory of Lepanto was accompanied by 
the loss of Cyprus, so the victory of St. Gott- 



139 



THE SECOND SIEGE OF VIENNA. 



hard was very soon followed by the loss of 
Crete (1669). 

The last Territory Gained by the Turks 
(1679). — The rival claims of Poland, Russia, and 
Turkey to dominion over the Cossacks, led to 
wars both with Poland and Russia (1672-1676). 
In this, though the famous John Sobieski won 
several brilHant victories both before and after 
his election to the Polish crown, yet Poland 
lost the strong town of Kaminiec, and the 
whole province of Podolia. This was the last 
time that the Turks won any large territory 
from any Christian power. The peace of 
Zurawna (October 27, 1676) confirmed them 
in the possession not only of Podolia, but of 
the greater part of the Ukraine. 

Three days after this peace, Ahmed Kiuprili 
died. Though his defeat at St. Gotthard had 
fairly given rise to an opinion among the 
Ottoman ranks that their vizir was not born 
to be a general, his military services to the 
empire, for which he won Crete, Neuhausel, 
and Kaminiec, were considerable ; and no 
minister ever did more than he accomplished 
in repressing insurrection and disorder, in 
maintaining justice and good government, and 
in restoring the financial and military strength 
of his country. 

The Second Siege of Vienna (1683). — 
The oppressive governments and the religious 
persecutions of the Austrian Cabinet in Hun- 
gary, had brought about a formidable insur- 
rection, headed by that bitter enemy of the 
House of Habsburg, Count Tekeli. The in- 
surgents were encouraged by the Turks from 
the beginning, and in 1681, Kara Mustapha, 
who was now Grand Vizir, determined to as- 
sist them openly. It was not, however, till 
1683 that he appeared in Hungary, formed a 
junction with Tekeli, and began his march to 
Vienna. At the approach of the Turks the 
Viennese were seized with a terror amount- 
ing almost to despair. The Emperor quitted 
Vienna, and his departure was the signal for 
an almost universal flight. The Turks sat 
down before it on July 14th, and such were 
their numbers that their encampment is said 
to have contained more than one hundred 
thousand tents. Count Stahremberg with 
70,000 men defended the city. At one time 
Vienna seemed beyond the reach of human 
aid. By the end of August its situation had 
become extremely critical. Provisions and 
ammunition began to fail, the garrison had lost 
6,000 men, and numbers died every day by 
pestilence or by the hand of the enemy. 
Finally, on September 9th, Sobieski formed 
a junction with the German army under Max 
Emanuel of Bavaria, on the plain of Tulln. 
The united army contained 83,000 men. On 



September 12th they attacked the 200,000 
Turks, who, after a few hours of resistance, 
were completely routed. 

Count Stahremberg received John Sobieski 
in the magnificent tent of the Grand Vizir, 
and greeted him as deliverer. They then en- 
tered Vienna, and in St. Stephen's Church 
gave thanks for their deliverance, when the 
preacher chose for his text, " There was a man 
sent by God whose 7iame was John."" Sobieski 
pursued the retreating Turks, and terminated 
the campaign with the capture of Gran (Octo- 
ber 27, 1683), which place had been almost a 
century and a half in the hands of the infidels. 

Sultan Mohammed IV., enraged at these 
misfortunes, caused Kara Mustapha to be be- 
headed at Belgrade. His head was found at 
the capture of Belgrade in 1688, and is still 
preserved in the city arsenal at Vienna 

THE GREAT • NORTHERN WAR (1700- 
1721). 

Origin of the War. — While the south of 
Europe was engaged in the War of the Span- 
ish Succession, which lasted twelve years, the 
north was excited by the family dissensions of 
the House of Holstein to a contest which was 
not terminated in less than twenty. 

When Christian III., King of Denmark 
(1533-1559), had formerly divided the patri- 
monial inheritance with his brother Adolf, 
Duke of Holstein, the affairs of Holstein con- 
tinued to be administered conjointly ; but 
when the course of time, and difference of 
views and dispositions, had estranged the 
kings and dukes from each other, a multi- 
tude of disputes arose, which gave occasion 
to separate compacts, and to the final ar- 
rangement of articles for a general peace. 
Charles XII., King of Sweden (1697-1718) 
took the part of his friend and brother-in- 
law, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, against 
Frederick IV., King of Denmark (1699-1730), 
who had no idea that the youthful warrior 
would be able to follow up his plans with de- 
cisive effect. These movements appeared to 
Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony and 
King of Poland, to afford a favorable oppor- 
tunity for the recovery of Livonia ; to which 
he was, invited by the malcontents of that 
province. His general and prime minister. 
Count Fleming, marched toward its confines ; 
but he found the Swedish government fore- 
warned of, and prepared for, his attack. 
Charles XII., with the vigor and rapidity of 
lightning, compelled the astonished King of 
Denmark to conclude a treaty of peace in 
Travendahl (August, 1700), by which he re- 
nounced his alliance with Russia and restored 



140 



CHARLES XII. 



to the Duke of Holstein all the territory of 
which he had been deprived by the Danes. 

The Russo-Saxon War (1700-1706). — 
Charles XII., after his return from Seeland, 
had determined to lead his forces against the 
Saxons and Poles who had invaded Livonia, 
but his plans were altered by the news that 
Tsar Peter, at the head of 80,000 men, had in- 
vaded Ingria and laid siege to Narva. Charles 
immediately resolved to direct his march on 
that city. On November 27, 1700, Charles 
forced the reputed impregnable defile of Pya- 
jokki, and on November 30th he destroyed the 
Russian army at Narva. 

This Battle of Narva (November 30, 1700) 
is an epoch in the history of Russia. It 
opened the eyes of the Tsar to the defects of 
his army ; and as he was not of a temper to 
be discouraged by a defeat, he regarded it 
as a useful lesson, and redoubled his efforts to 
bring his forces into a better condition. 

Charles XII. marched from Narva against 
the Saxons and Poles, who were driven out of 
Livonia ; conquered the greater part of Lith- 
uania, and entering Poland in triumph, com- 
pelled the Poles to depose Augustus II. and 
elect in his room Stanislaus Lesczinsky (1704). 
Leaving Tsar Peter to extend his conquests 
on the shores of the Baltic, and found his 
new capital, St. Petersburg, within the fron- 
tiers of Sweden herself (1703), Charles XII. 
invaded Saxony, and compelled Augustus II. 
(in the peace of Altranstadt, 1706) to recognize 
Stanislaus Lesczinsky as King of Poland, and 
renounce his alliance wnth the Tsar. 

The Battle of Pultawa (July 8, 1709).— 
All the fruits of these brilliant successes were 
lost through the obstinacy and foolhardiness 
of Charles. Hearing that Peter had entered 
Poland for the purpose of reinstating Augus- 
tus II., he quitted Saxony and drove the Rus- 
sians out of Poland. Elated at his success, he 
conceived the design of dethroning Peter. 
Forcing his way through forests and morasses 
to the banks of the Dnieper, he crossed that 
river and was ready to advance on Moscow, 
when Mazeppa, Hetman of the Cossacks, in- 
duced him to go to the Ukraine and there" 
incorporate his men with the Swedish army. 
When he came there, he found Mazeppa aban- 
doned by his own troops. He persisted, how- 
ever, obstinately in advancing, and found him- 
self suddenly with his 15,000 men opposite 
50,000 Russians. On July 8, 1709, he was 
attacked by the Russians at Pultawa, where 
he was so utterly defeated that he was com- 
pelled to cross the Dnieper with a few atten- 
dants, and take refuge in the Turkish city of 
Bender. 

The victory of Pultawa may be said to form 



an epoch in European history as well as in the 
Swedish and Russian annals. It put an end 
to the preponderance of Sweden in Northern 
Europe, occasioned the Grand Alliance to be 
renewed against her, and ultimately caused 
her to lose the conquests of Gustavus Adol- 
phus and Charles X. 

Russia, on the other hand, now began to 
step forward as a great European power. The 
penetrating mind of Peter saw at a glance the 
importance of this victory, which he com- 
manded to be annually celebrated. 

Closing Years of Charles XII. — Charles 
spent five years in Turkey (1709-17 14), in the 
most obstinate violation of the rights of hos- 
pitality, and returned to his exhausted states, 
only to levy new wars against Prussia, Russia, 
and England. The King of Prussia had taken 
possession of Pomerania as far as the Peene ; 
and George I. had bought Bremen and Ver- 
den from the Danes, who had conquered that 
territory during Charles' absence. During 
four years the hero-king contended gloriouslv, 
but in vain, against fortune, that now seemed 
resolved to pimish him for the abuse of her 
favors. He had effected a reconciliation with 
the Tsar and was on the point of kindling the 
flames of war in Europe anew, when he fell 
before Friedrichshall (December 11, 17 18) by 
a ball which, as there is strong ground for 
believing, was fired by the hand of one of his 
own attendants. He left no issue. Charles 
Frederick, Duke of Holstein, the son of his 
eldest sister, was in the camp, and thought 
himself so certain of succeeding to the crown 
that he made no movement to secure its pos- 
session. The Swedes, however, chose as their 
queen, Ulrica Eleonora, the younger sister of 
Charles. She married the hereditary Prince 
of Hesse, who was neither formidable nor 
odious to any of the neighboring powers. The 
queen transferred the government to Frederick, 
her husband ; the diet confirmed the crown to 
them and their children ; but in case they 
should die without natural heirs, the ancient 
right of election was reserved to the nation. 

The great Northern War was finally ended 
by the peace of Nystadt (August 30, 1721), by 
which the Baltic provinces were finally ceded 
to Russia. 

Peter the Great. — A few days after the 
signing of the Treaty of Nystadt, Peter wrote 
to his ambassador in Paris : " Apprenticeships 
commonly end in seven years ; ours has lasted 
thrice as long ; but, thank God, it is at last 
brought to the desired termination, as you will 
perceive from the copy of the treaty." 

The apprenticeship was, indeed, long and 
arduous, but the results were in proportion. 



Having to contend with a state formidable 



141 



THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION WAR. 



both by sea and land, Peter found it neces- 
sary to remodel his army, and to create a 
navy ; and it was from the Swedes themselves, 
then the most warlike nation of Europe, that 
he at length learnt how to beat them — a fact 
which he was always ready to acknowledge. 
His triple apprenticeship could not have been 
spent in a better school ; but it required qual- 
ities like his to reap the full advantage of it : 
a mind acute and large enough to perceive 



his own deficiencies and those of his people; 
modest enough to learn how to remedy them ; 
energetic enough to submit to any privations 
and dangers for that purpose. After this 
peace, the Senate and Synod conferred upon 
him the title of Emperor of all the Russias ; 
and on his return to St. Petersburg in Octo- 
ber, he was saluted by his nobles and peo- 
ple as The Father of his Country^ Peter the 
Great. 



THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 



THE TRIALS OF PRUSSIA. 

Retrospect of Prussian History. — The 

Polish country of Prussia was held since 1226 
by the Knights of the Teutonic Order, w^ho, 
after extirpating the natives (Wends), repeo- 
pled the country with settlers, mostly drawn 
from Northwest Germany. 

These Prussians (Germans settled in Prus- 
sia), disgusted with the tyranny of the 
knights, placed themselves (1454) under the 
protection of Casimir IV., King of Poland, 
who, after a bloody war, forced the knights to 
submit to the Treaty of Thorn (1466), by 
means of which they lost Western Prussia, 
and became, for Eastern Prussia, vassals of 
Poland. 

In 1525 the Grandmaster Albert of Hohen- 
zollern (sprung from a side-branch of the Ho- 
henzollerns in Brandenburg) turned Lutheran, 
dissolved the order, and, with the consent of 
his feudal superior. King Sigismund of Po- 
land, became hereditary Duke of Eastern 
Prussia, but still in feudal subjection to Po- 
land. In 1618, on the death of the second 
Prussian Duke Albert Frederick, his son-in- 
law, John Sigismund, the Elector of Branden- 
burg, succeeded him in his duchy. 

Thus were united the German Province of 
Brandenburg and the Polish Province of Prus- 
sia. 

John Sigismund's grandson, Frederick Will- 
iam {The Great Elector), founded the real 
greatness of the nascent state. A rapid, clear- 
eyed man, he dexterously used his compact, 
w^ell-disciplined little army, amid the compli- 
cations of that eventful period, so as to con- 
serve the Brandenburg interests. He encour- 
aged trade, made roads, and welcomed the 
Huguenots whom Louis XIV. drove from 
France. In the first year of the eighteenth 
century, his son received frotn Emperor Leo- 
pold I., in return for furnishing him troops 



during the War of the Spanish Succession, 
permission to assume the title of King in 
Prussia (Frec'erick I.), and crowned hi?nse If Sit 
Konigsberg (January 18, 1701). The grand- 
son of this first King in Prussia was Frederick 
the Great, who succeeded his father, Freder- 
ick William I., in May, 1740. 

The Austrian Succession War.— Within 
six months (October 20th) the male line of the 
Habsburgs became extinct, by the death of 
Emperor Charles VI., whose principal en- 
deavor throughout his whole reign had been 
to secure the various lands which were united 
under the Austrian sceptre against division 
after his death. Hence, he established an or- 
der of succession under the name of ihc Frag- 
viatic Sanction, by which his daughter Maria 
Theresa was left mistress of all the hereditary 
dominions of the House of Habsburg. This 
arrangement had been guaranteed by all Eu- 
rope. Europe, however, soon rose, almost in 
its entirety (England excepted), to oppose it. 
France claimed Belgium, Spain Milan, Bavaria 
Bohemia, or rather the whole inheritance* and 
Frederick II. of Prussia, Silesia. But no one 
gained his end in this war except Frederick 
II., who obtained Silesia by the Peace of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, in 1748. 

Although Maria Theresa had made peace 
with Frederick, she never for a moment for- 
got the loss of Silesia. Its recovery was the 
great object of her life. She toiled during 
many years to unite the whole civilized world 

* The Elector of Bavaria, Charles Albert, appealed to two 
ancient instruments — the marriage contract (1546) between 
Albert V., Duke of Bavaria, and Anne, daughter of the Em- 
peror Ferdinand I., and to the last will of the same emperor. 
He contended that by these two deeds the Austrian succes- 
sion was assured to Anne and her descendants, in default of 
male heirs, the issue of the archdukes, her brother. Maria 
Theresa, however, asserted that the deeds spoke not of the 
extinction of the male issue of Ferdinand's sons, but of their 
legitimate issue. 

The truth of the matter was that the marriage contract 
varied from the will. Maria Theresa's assertion being based 
on the will, Charles Albert's on the marriage contract. 



142 



1763 A. D. 



PLATE XLVIII. 




THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 



against Frederick. She early succeeded in 
obtaining the adhesion of Russia. An ample 
share of spoil was pledged to the King of 
Poland, who readily promised the assistance 
of the Saxon forces. France was induced to 
join the coalition, and the example of France 
determined the conduct of Sweden, then com- 
pletely subject to French influence. 

The Seven Years' War. — Frederick, who 
had tools in every court, soon learned that he 
was to be assailed' at once by France, Austria, 
Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and the Germanic 
body, and that the greater part of his domin- 
ions was to be portioned out among his ene- 
mies. He determined to strike the first blow. 
It was in the month of August, 1756, that the 
Seven Years' War commenced. He demanded 
of Maria Theresa a distinct explanation of her 
intentions. He received an answer at once 
haughty and evasive. In an instant the rich 
electorate of Saxony was overflowed by 67,000 
Prussian troops. He defeated the Austrians 
at Lobositz (October ist), and surrounding 
the Saxons, compelled them to surrender and 
enlist in his ranks (October i6th). The next 
year he beat the Austrians under the walls of 
Prague (May 6, 1757). But now misfortunes 
gathered fast. He met his first great defeat 
at Kollin (June i8th) ; the Russians invaded 
Prussia (August) ; the Swedes landed in Pom- 
erania, and the French, after capturing the 
English army in Hanover (June), advanced 
toward Saxony. 

Rallying his men and his courage, he turned 
upon his foes, and in the short space of thirty 
days he had extricated himself, with dazzling 
glory. First he annihilated (November 5, 
1757) the French 7vt Rossbach, and just a month 
later (December 5th) the Austrians at Leuthen. 
His srenius set all the world to wonderinsr. 
London was ablaze in his honor, and Pitt, the 
English prime minister, secured him a grant of 
$3,500,000 per annum. The third campaign 
witnessed as signal a victory over the Rus- 
sians at Zorndorf {^kw^ws^X. 25, 1758). The cam- 
paign of 1760 was one of the grandest efforts of 
his genius. Foiled in an attempt on Dresden 
he again saved Silesia by a victory at Liegnitz 
(August 15th), and hurled back an advance of 
Daun by a victory at Torgaii (November 3d). 

But even victories drained his strength. Men 
and money alike failed him. It was impos- 
sible for him to strike another great blow, and 
the ring of enemies closed slowly round him. 
The fall of Pitt (October, 1761), which was 
followed by a withdrawal of the English sub- 
sidy, drove Frederick almost to despair. It 
was, in fact, only his dogged resolution, and a 
sudden change in the policy of Russia, which 
followed on the death of his enemy, the 



Tsarina Elizabeth (January 5, 1762), that en- 
abled him at last to retire from the struggle 
without the loss of an inch of territory. The 
Peace of Hubertsburg, which made an end to 
the struggle, was signed February 15, 1763. 

After seven years of carnage, during which 
886,000 men had perished, everything was re- 
placed, in Europe, precisely in the same state 
in which it was in 1748. The political results 
were, however, considerable. England, instead 
of France, began to be regarded as the leading 
power, and the predominance of the five great 
states w^s henceforth established by the success 
of Prussia. This last result was wholly due to 
the genius and enterprise of Frederick II., 
who in the conduct of the war displayed qual- 
ities which procured for him, from his ad- 
mirers, the appellation of the Great. 

THE PARTITION OF POLAND. 

Retrospect of Polish History. — The Sla- 
vonic tribes occupying the districts around the 
central and lower Oder and Vistula called 
themselves Lechs, and their country Poland, 
i.e., the Plain. In the tenth century a consid- 
erable power arose for the first time in these re- 
gions, having its centre atGnesen, the abiding 
metropolitan city of Poland. Under Boleslaf 
(1000 A.D.)agreat empire was formed, stretch- 
ing from the Elbe to the Dnieper, and from 
the shores of the Baltic to the Carpathians. 

Constant divisions among members of the 
ruling family, the Piasts, did not destroy its 
national unity and independence. A Polish 
State always lived on, and from the end of 
the thirteenth century it took its place as an 
important European kingdom, holding a dis- 
tinctive position as the one Slavonic power at 
once attached to the Western Church and in- 
dependent of the Western Empire. Casimir 
the Great (1333-1370), who had added Red 
Russia, Podolia, and Volhynia to his realm, 
having no children, resolved to leave his crown 
to his nephew Louis, son of Charles Robert, 
the Angevin king of Hungary. With this view, 
he summoned a national assembly at Cracow, 
which approved the choice he had made. 

This proceeding, however, enabled the Pol- 
ish nobles to interfere with the succession of 
the crown and to render it elective, like that 
of Hungary and Bohemia, so that the Polish 
State became a sort of aristocratic republic. 
On the death of Louis, in 1382, his daughter 
Hedwig was elected queen, whose marriage 
with Jagiello, Grand Duke of Lithuania, 
brought about the union of Poland and Lith- 
uania as distinct states under a common sov- 
ereign. Jagiello, who received at his baptism 
the name of Wladislaus, reigned till 1434 ; and 



143 



1772—1795 A. D. 



Plate XLIX. 




PARTITION OF POLAND. 



it was he who, in order to obtain a subsidy 
from the nobles, first established the Polish 
Diet. This Diet, chosen only by the nobles, 
possessed the whole power of the government : 
it elected the king, made the laws, and even 
took a part in the executive administration. 
Notwithstanding that the Diet possessed such 
extensive powers, it lay, since 1632, at the 
mercy of any single member, who, by virtue 
of what was called the Liberum Veto, might 
annul its proceedings. 

The First Division of Poland. — In 1764 
the Diet elected Stanislaus Poniatowsky to the 
throne, after he had promised to restore the 
non-Catholics to all civil rights. When he 
wanted to carry out his promise the fanaticism 
of the populace was excited by the priests, 
who gave out that King Stanislaus intended to 
abolish Catholicism. In March, 1768, a Con- 
federation was formed by the Polish Catholics 
in the town of Bar, in Podolia, for the pur- 
p)Ose of dethroning the king and restoring 
Polish freedom. Catharine II. of Russia, dis- 
gusted with the continual civil war in Poland, 
drew from this event a fresh pretext for hos- 
tility against the Polish republic. Knowing 
that Russia would not be suffered to aggran- 
dize herself alone, and without the participa- 
tion of Austria and Prussia, she made secret 
treaties with both. Frederick the Great now 
occupied Polish (Western) Prussia, Emperor 
Joseph II. marched into Southern Poland, 
and 30,000 Russians occupied the central 
provinces. Pulawski, the leader of the Con- 
federation, when he heard of the union of the 
three powers, retired from a hopeless contest, 
and exhorted its followers to reserve them- 
selves for better times. The powers now pro- 
ceeded to divide the booty. Russia obtained 
2,500 square miles, with 1,500,000 souls ; 
Austria, 1,300 square miles, with 2,500,- 
000 souls, and Prussia 700 square miles, 
with a population of about eight hun- 
dred thousand souls. Although the Prus- 
sian share was smaller than the others, yet it 
was very valuable to Frederick, because it 
joined his Prussian kingdom to the main body 
of the monarchy. The population, too, was 
richer and more commercial. The Diet of 
April, 1773, confirmed this first partition. 
Nearly all the members accepted bribes. In 
that Diet the ruin of Poland was consummated 
by its own children, amid every kind of lux- 
ury, frivolity, and profligacy. 

Second Partition of Poland. — Under Rus- 
sian auspices a new constitution was made 
for the curtailed realm, which was promul- 



gated in 1775. When an attempt was made to 
set aside the constitution in 1792, one Polish 
party called in the help of Russia. A Russian 
army, 100,000 strong, invaded Poland. Brave 
but futile resistance was made by Kosciusko, 
who was defeated at Dubienka. The king 
joined the confederacy of Targowitz ; the new 
constitution was repealed. Russia and Prus- 
sia issued a common proclamation which an- 
nounced to the Poles that Russia and her 
former allies had already come to an under- 
standing to preserve the peace of Eastern Eu- 
rope by a new partition of Poland. 

At the Diet of Grodno the consent of the na- 
tion to the new cessions was extorted (June, 
1793). Prussia got this time more than one 
thousand square miles of territory, peopled by 
more than three and a half million souls ; Rus- 
sia got 4,553 square miles, and a population of 
more three million souls. Several of the 
Polish patriots retired now into Saxony. But 
they were still animated with the hope of res- 
cuing their country from oppression. 

Third Partition of Poland. — Kosciusko, 
hearing of the increasing discontent, hastened 
to Cracow, where he was proclaimed general- 
issimo (March 24th). Warsaw now rose and 
massacred every Russian they could find 
(April 1 6th). Similar scenes took place at 
Wilna and Grodno. The entire Polish army 
declared for Kosciusko, who had been invested 
with dictatorial power. Prussian, Austrian, 
and Russian troops now poured from all sides 
into Poland. Kosciusko and his Poles made 
an heroic resistance. But the valor of these 
patriots, armed with scythes, hatchets, and 
hammers, served only to increase the horror of 
their country's ruin. In his intrenched camp 
before Warsaw, Kosciusko for a time held his 
swarming foes at bay. But finally (October 
loth, at Maciejowice) he was captured, and a 
month later Suvaroff entered Warsaw. Rus- 
sia, Austria, and Prussia now quietly divided 
their blood-stained prey, and Poland was 
blotted out from the map of Europe. (See 
Plate XLIX.) The powers acquired by the three 
partitions about the following increase of ter- 
ritory : Russia, 181,000 square miles, with 
6,000,000 inhabitants ; Austria, 45,000 square 
miles, with 3,700,000 inhabitants, and Prussia, 
57,000 square miles, with 2,500,000 inhabi- 
tants. It is important to remember that the 
three partitions gave no part of .the original 
Polish realm to Russia. It simply annexed 
Lithuania, more than half the territory of 
which had been originally Russian soil. The 
real Polish realm fell to the lot of Prussia. 



144 



THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 



THE FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC. 

The Downfall of the French Monarchy. 

— During the second half of the eighteenth 
century, France occupied an enviable posi- 
tion in Europe. Its government, though des- 
potic, was less oppressive and more influ- 
enced by public opinion than that of any other 
country. Its general wealth, though the 
nobles enjoyed exemption from any contribu- 
tion to the public burdens, was large and 
pretty evenly diffused. Its administration of 
justice was admirable. But its government 
suffered from serious financial embarrassments, 
from which it could only free itself by an ap- 
peal to the country at large. Louis XVI. re- 
solved to summon the States-General, which 
had not met since 1614, and to appeal to the 
nobles to waive their immunity from taxation. 

They no sooner met at Versailles (May, 
1789) than the whole fabric began to crumble. 
A rising in Paris destroyed the Bastille (July 
14, 1789), and its destruction was taken for 
the dawn of a new era of constitutional free- 
dom in France and through Europe. It proved 
to be the beginning of frightful anarchy. 

The Constituent Assembly (1789-1791). 
— During about six years the revolution ran 
through three stages, to the extreme of a dem- 
ocratic republic. 

On June 17, 1789, upon the motion of Abbe 
Sieyes, the representatives of the third estate 
in the States-General assumed the title of the 
Constituent Assembly, and invited the nobles 
and clergy to join them. Many of the clergy 
and some of the nobles did join them. But a 
rising of the peasants against their feudal lords 
in the southeastern provinces led a majority 
of the nobles to emigrate. 

The Constituent Assembly presented, on 
September 3, 1791, the Act of the Constitution 
to the king. Louis XVI. (who had succeeded 
his grandfather Louis XV. in 1774) notified his 
acceptance of it in a letter addressed to the As- 
sembly (September 13th), and on the next day 
he came to confirm it with an oath. 

This constitution, which had raised so many 
expectations, lasted hardly a year. Its most 
lasting merit was the destruction of ancient 
abuses. It had established uniformity of taxa- 
tion and vested the power of the purse in the 
representatives of the people. Its aim had 
been to establish an hereditary constitutional 
monarchy, but they had stripped the king of 



his prerogatives, deprived him of the support 
of the clergy and nobles, placed him fa,ce to 
face with a wild democracy, and had deprived 
him of such executive power as might control 
its excesses. The Act of the Constitntion having 
been proclaimed with great pomp (September 
i8th), the Constituent Assembly declared its 
labors terminated and the revolution accom- 
plished. One of their last acts had been to 
declare themselves ineligible to the legislature 
(self-denying ordinance). 

The Legislative Assembly (October i, 
1791, to September 21, 1792). — This assembly 
was far from being composed of such distin- 
guished men as had sat in the Constituent As- 
sembly. France had exhausted her best talent, 
and, by the self-denying ordinance, had also 
deprived herself of the services of men who 
had acquired some political experience. The 
new deputies were mostly young men of the 
middle class. They divided into four well- 
defined parties : the Feuillants, so called from 
their place of meeting — the convent of the 
Feuillants — who were the defenders of the con- 
stitutional monarchy ; the Centre, the friends of 
the new constitution ; the Girondists (originally 
formed by the deputies of the Gironde), who 
were moderate republicans ; the left party was 
formed by the Cordeliers (so called from their 
place of meeting in the church of the bare- 
footed friars), who were fanatical democrats. 
The Gironde forced the king (April, 1792) to 
form a cabinet of Girondists, which compelled 
him to declare war against Francis II., ^' King 
of Hungary a?td Bohe?nia.'' Three armies were 
sent into the field, but the fortune of war was 
against the French, which increased the revolu- 
tionary excitement at Paris and caused the 
dismissal of the Girondist cabinet (June 13th). 
A week later the king was attacked by an in- 
furiated mob in the palace at the Tuileries. 
The rapid advance of the enemy, and the pub- 
lication of a threatening manifesto by the 
Duke of Brunswick, so alarmed and irritated 
the populace that they besieged the king a 
second time (August loth) in the Tuileries, 
with the avowed intention of compelling him 
to abdicate. 

Louis now threw himself into the arms of 
the National Assembly, which passed a decree 
suspending the royal authority, agreed to sum- 
mon a national convention for the settlement 
of the future constitution, and committed the 
king and his family to the Temple (August 



145 



THE REIGN OF TERROR. 



13, 1792). Soon after the Legislative Assembly 
was itself dissolved to make room for a na- 
tional convention. 

The National Convention (September, 
1792, to October, 1795). — The National Con- 
vention, charged with the drawing up of a new 
constitution, assembled September 21, 1792. 
It wa€ divided into a right, left, and centre 
partv. In each assembly the right represented 
the conservative element, the left the progres- 
sive party. The left of the constituent was 
the right of the legislative, and the left of the 
legislative was at first the right of the conven- 
tion. The Girondists, although in appear- 
ance in the majority, had placed themselves 
in a false position, having gone too far for the 
Constitutionalists and not far enough for the 
Jacobins. Opposite to them were the real 
masters of the convention, the Mountain^ so- 
called from the members of it occupying the 
highest benches on the left. Their strength 
lay not in their number but in their being sup- 
ported by the Jacobin Club, the Cojnmiine, and 
consequently the Parisian mob, then the su- 
preme power in the State. Between the Gir- 
onde and the Mountain, voting sometimes 
with one, sometimes with the other, was seated 
tlie Plain or the Marsh (Marais), consisting 
principally of new members without settled 
political connections. The convention on the 
very first day it assembled (September 21st) 
decreed the abolition of royalty and declared 
France a republic. 

September 2 2d was the first day of the year 
one, of the French Republic. 

In spite of the resistance offered by the 
Girondists the king was compelled to appear 
at the bar of the National Convention, who act- 
ed at once as judges and accusers. He was 
condemned on December 26, 1792, of ''having 
conspired against the liberty of the 7iation and 
endangering the public safety^'' and on January 
21, 1793, Louis XVI. was beheaded. On the 
following March loth the revolutionary tri- 
bunal was set up for the speedier trial of State 
offences, and on May 27th the Co?n?nittee of 
Public Safety, of which Marat was president, 
became the executive ministry. Two months 
afterward he was assassinated by Charlotte 
Corday. 

The Reign of Terror (i 793-1 794). — The 
principal Girondists were arrested on June 2d, 
and the Reign of Terror began. Marie Antoi- 
nette was guillotined on October i6th, the Gir- 
ondists on the 31st, and Madame Elizabeth (the 
sister of Louis XVI.) before the end of the year. I 

As the revolution proceeded, parties con- ' 
tinned to separate. The Gironde had sup- ] 
planted the Constkutionalists, and had in its 
turn been overthrown by the Mountain. In ' 



the democratic residuum still left we find three 
distinct factions. First, the ultra-democrats 
led by Hebert, who were for terror in all its 
wildest excesses. In contradistinction to this 
faction had sprung up '' the party of Mercy," at 
the head of which were Camille Desmoulins 
and Danton. Between these two parties stood 
that of Robespierre, St. Just, and Couthon, 
who desired a sort of political and regulated 
terror, which they disguised under the name 
of Justice. This last party was sufficiently 
powerful to cause the destruction of all its 
opponents. First it demolished the Hebertists 
and next the Dantonists. Then Robespierre 
set himself to work to establish some sem- 
blance of religion and order, but the means 
that he employed were more arbitrary than ever, 
and the scaffolds ran with blood. Some of 
his own followers discovered that their names 
were on the list of the condemned, and in their 
turn they conspired, and stirred up the con- 
vention against Robespierre, who was charged 
with conspiring against the republic, arrested, 
condemned without being heard in his own 
defence, and guillotined with twenty-two of 
his adherents on July 28, 1794. 

The Directory (1795-1799)- — After the fall 
of Robespierre a new constitution was drawn 
up ; and the Directory, a council of five, as- 
sumed the conduct of the government (August 
22, 1795). The legislative power was vested 
in two chambers ; a lower one of 500 members, 
called the Council of Five Hundred, and an 
upper one of 250 members, called the Council 
of THE Ancients. By this arrangement meas- 
ures were at least submitted to more mature 
deliberation, and the danger of being carried 
away by sudden impulses was obviated. The 
Ancients, except in urgent cases, were not to 
decide till a bill had been read three times, 
with an interval of at least five days between 
each reading. A third part of each Council 
was to be replaced every year by new mem- 
bers, and two-thirds of each of the new cham- 
bers were to be elected from among the mem- 
bers of the late convention. The royalists, 
who had returned after the fall of Robespierre, 
were against this last proviso, and it was soon 
discovered that an appeal to force was con- 
templated. The convention, still in session, 
could rely upon the regular army. Troops 
were moved up to Paris, and the command of 
them was given to Barras, who demanded as 
his second an officer, struck from the army 
list, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had already 
earned some distinction by raising the siege of 
Toulon in 1793. 

Barras entrusted the direction of the mili- 
tary operations against the insurgents to Bona- 
parte, who acted with promptitude and decis- 



146 



1810 A. D. 



PLATE L. 




BONAPAKTE. 



ion, crushed the revolt by the bloody victory of 
the thirteenth Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795). 
The convention used its victory with modera- 
tion, and dissolved three weeks afterward 
(October 26th), when the five directors took 
the reins of government in their hands. 

Condition of France in 1795. — In 1795, 
after six years of revolution, throne and altar, 
arts and manufactures had been destroyed ; 
the public credit was utterly annihilated, and 
no taxes to collect ; all the main roads, canals, 
bridges, etc., were in a deplorable state of 
dilapidation. The armies were not only un- 
paid, but without clothing or bread. The war 
on the Rhine had terminated in disaster. The 
army of Italy had achieved little beyond some 
obscure successes. It was the appointment of 
Napoleon Bonaparte to the command of the 
latter force, in the spring of 1796, that first 
brought a change for the better. 

General Bonaparte.- — In a brilliant cam- 
paign (1796-97) he forced Austria to make 
peace at Campo Formio (October 17, 1797), 
which secured to France the Ionian Islands, 
Venice, the Netherlands, and the left bank of 
the Rhine. On his return from Italy, Bona- 
parte laid before the French Government (the 
Directory) a plan for the conquest and occu- 
pation of Egypt as a preliminary to attack the 
English in India. The conquest of Egypt 
proved as easy and complete as Bonaparte had 
hoped. But the destruction of the French 
fleet at Aboukir by Nelson (August i, 1798), 
cut off all communication between France and 
Bonaparte's army ; and his hopes of making 
Egypt a starting-point for the conquest of 
India fell at a blow. But foiled as were his 
dreams of Indian conquest, his daring genius 
plunged into wider projects. He conceived 
the design of the conquest of Syria. Gaza was 
taken, Jaffa stormed, and Acre, the key of 
Syria, besieged. But it was stubbornly held 
by the Turks, and, after a heavy loss by sword 
and plague, Bonaparte was forced to fall 
back upon Egypt, which, indeed, was more 
than ever his own, for a Turkish force which 
landed near Alexandria was cut to pieces by 
him in the battle of Aboukir (July 25, 1799). 
But the news of defeat at home, and the cer- 
tainty that all wider hopes in the East were at 
an end, induced him to leave his army (August 
22d). His arrival in Paris (October 14th) was 
the sign for a change in the government. 

Consul Bonaparte. — The directors were 
divided among themselves and a revolution 
put an end to their power (November loth). 

Three consuls took the place of the five Di- 
rectors ; but, under the name of First Consul, 
Bonaparte became in effect sole ruler of the 
country. He found France surrounded on all 



sides by bitter enemies, bent on its destruction. 
Crossing the St. Bernard with his army, he 
gained (June 14, 1800) such a victory, at Ma- 
rengo^ that they were glad to make peace with 
the republic (Luneville, February 19, 1801 — 
Amiens, March, 1802). 

But the peace brought no rest to England. 
The new social vigor the revolution had given 
to France, through the abolition of privileges 
and the creation of a new middle class on the 
ruins of the clergy and the nobles, still lived 
on. Bonaparte, by his restoration of the 
church, his recall of the exiles, and the econ- 
omy and wise administration wdiich distin- 
guished his rule, was enabled to seize this na- 
tional vigor for the furtherance of his own 
plans. Soon it became plain that a struggle 
between England and France was inevitable, 
and in May, 1803, the armaments preparing in 
the French ports hastened the formal dec- 
laration of war. An invasion of England was 
planned on a gigantic scale. A camp of 100,- 
000 men was formed at Boulogne. 

THE FIRST EMPIRE. 
The Conquest of Western Europe. — The 

invasion seemed imminent, when Napoleon, 
who, on May 18, 1804, had been proclaimed 
emperor, appeared personally in the camp. 
To divert this danger, Pitt had formed an alli- 
ance with Russia, Austria, and Sweden. This 
forced Napoleon to abandon the dream of in- 
vading England, to meet the coalition in his 
rear, and swinging round his forces on the 
Danube, he forced an Austrian army to a 
shameful capitualtion in Ulm (October 17, 
1805). From Ulm he marclied on Vienna and 
cruslied the combined armies of Austria and 
Russia at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805). Prus- 
sia, which had played a double game during 
the war, was next attacked. The decisive vic- 
tories of Jena and Auerstiidt (October 4,1806) 
laid it at Napoleon's feet, who (October 27th) 
entered Berlin. From Berlin he marched to 
Eastern Prussia, and though checked in the 
winter by the Russian forces in the hard- fought 
battle of Eylau (February, 1807), his victory of 
Friedland(June 14) brought Alexander of Rus- 
sia to consent to the peace of Tilsit (July 7, 
1807). Prussia had to surrender its whole 
Polish territory, save West Prussia. The rest 
of the Prussian share of Poland was formed 
into the Duchy of Warsaw. 

Napoleon was now absolutely master of 
Western Europe. Prussia was occupied by 
French troops. Holland was changed into a 
monarchy and its crown given to his brother 
Louis. Another brother, Jerome, became 
King of Westphalia ; a third brother, Joseph, 
was made King of Naples, while the rest of 



147 



THE FIRST EMPIRE. 



Italy and even Rome itself was annexed to the 
French Empire. On the refusal of Portugal 
to join the continental system (the closure of 
the continent to British trade), France and 
Spain agreed to divide Portugal between 
them ; and the reigning house of Braganza 
lied helplessly from Lisbon to a refuge in Bra- 
zil. But the seizure of Portugal was only 
meant as a prelude to the seizure of Spain. 

The Spanish Troubles. — In the beginning 
of the nineteenth century Spain had sunk to 
the very lowest place among the kingdoms of 
Europe, with all its resources exhausted, and 
its government a grim commentary on the na- 
tional disorder and ruin. 

The northern half of the peninsula was 
nothing but an agglomeration of rival nation- 
alities and unaffiliated races, and the southern 
half a conquered territory, suffering under the 
grim tyranny of the fanatical Castilians. 

An imbecile king (Charles IV.) occupied 
the throne. The queen (Louisa) ruled the 
land through her favorite Godoy, Prince of the 
Peace, whose government at length raised up 
against him a party determined to rescue the 
Spanish nation from the disgrace of being 
ruled by such a rascal. A little knot of dis- 
tinguished persons attached themselves to the 
heir to the crown, Ferdinand, Prince of the 
Asturias, and the court became divided into 
two parties — that of the Prince of the Asturias 
and the Prince of the Peace. Both parties ap- 
pealed to the Emperor Napoleon, who, in an 
unfortunate hour for France and himself, re- 
solved to expel the Bourbons from Spain, and 
to substitute a dynasty of his own for the effete 
and incapable existing rulers. 

This audacious project seemed at first mar- 
vellously seconded by fortune. In the last 
months of 1807 the Peninsula was flooded with 
French soldiers under Junot and MuRATwho 
easily overcame all resistance. But a sudden 
burst of national indignation against Godoy, 
the supporter of ^he French alliance, drove the 
aged Charles IV. from the throne and Fer- 
dinand VII. was proclaimed at Aranjuez as 
the representative of Spanish patriotism, and 
pledged to oppose the detested foreigners. 
In this even Napoleon thought he saw the 
means of accomplishing his designs, 

Charles IV. and his son Ferdinand were 
drawn to Bayonne (May, 1808), and forced to 
resign their claims to the Spanish crown, 
while the French army entered Madrid and 
proclaimed Joseph Bonaparte (since 1806 
King of Naples) King of Spain ; Napoleon's 
brother-in-law, Murat (since 1806 grand-duke 
of Berg), taking the throne of Naples instead 
of Joseph. 

The new king had hardly entered Madrid, 



when Spain rose as one man against the 
stranger. The English at once sent troops 
under Sir John Moore and Sir Arthur Welles- 
ley to aid the Spaniards. 

Napoleon hastened in person to Spain with 
250,000 men, advanced to Madrid, and with 
Soult drove the English from Spain (Battle of 
Corunna, January 16, 1809). 

But the English force at Lisbon, which had 
already prepared to leave Portugal, was re- 
inforced with 13,000 fresh troops and placed 
under command of Sir Arthur Wellesley. 

The Battle of Wagram. — At this critical 
moment the best of the French troops with the 
emperor himself were drawn from the Penin- 
sula to the Danube. English gold had roused 
Austria to a renewal of the struggle. But 
Austria was driven to sue for peace by a de- 
cisive victory of Napoleon at Wagram (July 
5, 1809). After the peace of Schonbrunn (Oc- 
tober 14, 1809), which seemed to have con- 
solidated his power, Napoleon resolved to 
strengthen and perpetuate his dynasty by 
marrying Maria Louisa, the daughter of Em- 
peror Francis II. (March 9, 1810). 

Napoleon as Law-giver. — The peace of 
Schonbrunn had brought the Napoleonic Em- 
pire to its widest bounds. The fabric of this 
sovereignty was raised upon the ruins of all 
that was obsolete and forceless upon the con- 
tinent ; the benefits as well as the wrongs of 
his supremacy were now seen in their widest 
operations. 

Western Europe received in the Code Na- 
poleon a law, which to an extent hitherto 
unknown in Europe, brought social justice 
into the daily affairs of life. The privileges 
of the noble, the feudal burdens of the peas- 
ant, the monopolies of the guilds passed 
away, in most instances forever. The comfort 
and improvement of mankind were vindicated 
as the true aim of property by the abolition 
of the devices which convert the soil into an 
instrument of family pride, and by the enforce- 
ment of a fair division of inheritances among 
the children of the possessors. 

Legal process, both civil and criminal, was 
brought within the comprehension of ordinary 
citizens and submitted to the test of publicity. 
The price which was paid for all this was the 
suppression of every vestige of liberty, the 
conscription, and the continental blockade, 
the real political importance of which lay in 
the hostility which it excited between France 
and Russia. 

The Russian Campaign of 1812. — Tsar 
Alexander I. of Russia (1801-1825), who had 
attached himself to Napoleon's commercial 
system in 1807, withdrew from it in 1810, when 
the harbors of Russia were opened to all ships 



148 



THE HUNDRED DAYS. 



bearing a neutral flag, and a duty was imposed 
upon many of the products of France. It was 
scarcely less than a direct challenge to Napo- 
leon, who imagined that the command of the 
European coast line would enable him to ex- 
haust his bitter enemy, England ; and he was 
prepared to risk a war with Russia rather than 
permit it to frustrate his long-cherished hopes. 
In the spring of 1811 Napoleon had deter- 
mined upon war. On June 24, 181 2, he crossed 
the Niemen with an army of nearly six hundred 
thousand men. The Russians retreated before 
him so as to lure him into the heart of the 
country, until they reached the plain between 
Smolensk and Moscow, on which, September 
7th, the battle of Borodino was fought. The 
Russians retired upon Moscow, closely fol- 
lowed by Napoleon, who, on the morning of 
the 14th, first beheld its minarets and cupolas. 
The cry of " Moscow ! Moscow ! " burst from 



found his position one of extreme peril and 
difficulty. He granted liberal institutions to 
France, and endeavored once more to reorga- 
nize the army. He resolved to anticipate the 
movements of the allies by concentrating his 
troops in Belgium, and destroying the English 
and Prussian armies before the Austrians and 
Russians had time to come up. He crossed 
the frontier on June 14th, and wrested Ligny 
from the Prussians on the i6th, while Welling- 
ton prevented Ney from gaining the position 
of Quatre Bras, and on the 17th established 
himself near the village of Waterloo, for the 
purpose of covering Brussels. On the follow- 
ing day was fought the battle of Waterloo, 
where the great emperor was finally defeated. 
Once more he resigned his crown (June 22d), 
and then surrendered himself to the British 
Government. He was conveyed on board a 
British frigate to the island of St. Helena, 
where he passed the remainder of his days, and 



THE RESTORATION. 



the ranks as the army entered the famous city 

— but found it a city of the dead, for its three | died at the age of fifty-two, on May 5, 182 1. 

hundred thousand inhabitants had left with 

the Russian troops, after making preparations 

for burning it to the ground. Scarcely three 

days had passed before fire burst out in all 

directions. The invaders had to retreat under 

unparalleled hardships. 

Among the most horrible incidents was the 
passage of the Beresina (November 27th), with 
the Russians in pursuit. 

Rise of Europe against Napoleon. — In 
Poland Napoleon received news of a conspir- 
acy at home ; he hastened to Paris. His pres- 
ence, the frankness with which he told the tale 
of the unparalleled sufferings and heroic en- 



durance of his army, restored in a measure his 
waning popularity. His first act was to raise 
a new army, for the disastrous campaign was 
turning his allies into enemies. Soon he found 
himself opposed by a united Europe. The 



The Regulation of Europe. — The league 
of the older monarchies had proved stronger 
in the end than the genius and the ambition of 
a single man. The overthrow of Napoleon 
placed the supreme power in Europe in the 
hands of a Pentarchy of the Great Powers^ 
consisting of the five powers which had con- 
cluded the Peace of Paris, and which, to avoid 
quarrels about rank, were henceforward named 
in the order of the French alphabet — Autriche, 
France, Grande-Bretagne, Prusse, Russie- 



For special cases this union was joined by 
Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. 

These eight powers, after long negotiations, 
finally signed the Act of the Congress of Vienna, 
in which the Napoleonic booty was divided 



final struggle took place at Leipsic (October among the conquerors. Austria received, be- 



18, 1813). Napoleon was beaten and forced to 
fall back across the Rhine. He was soon fol- 
lowed by the allies. On the last day of 18 13 
they crossed the Rhine. For two months more 
Napoleon maintained a wonderful struggle 
with a handful of raw conscripts against the 
overwhelming numbers of his enemies. The 
campaign closed (March 31st) with the sur- 
render of Paris, and the submission of the cap- 
ital was at once followed by the abdication of 
the emperor (April 6th) and the return of the 
Bourbons. Napoleon was banished with the 
emoty title of emperor to Elba (May 4, 1814). 
The Hundred Days. — Within nine months, 
however, he returned to France, landing on 
the coast near Cannes. After twenty days he 
was again installed in the Tuileries. Then 
followed the reign of a hundred days. Napoleon 



sides her ancient domain of Milan, Venice, as 
a Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Genoa was 
given to Sardinia, which thus laid the founda- 
tion of her future greatness. The Papal Gov- 
ernment was re-established in the States of the 
Church. Naples and Sicily were restored to 
their Bourbon rulers, and Tuscany became 
again a grand-duchy. 

Austria received, also, besides the Lombar- 
do-Venetian kingdom, the Illyrian provinces 
(the old dominion of Venice), and Salzburg and 
Tyrol, taken from Bavaria. The true ruler of 
this Austrian empire, which stretched over 
Slavonic, German, and Italian lands, was 
Prince Metternich. Not content to rule this 
motley empire, he wished to make Germany 
and Italy his prefectures, to treat the upward- 
striving Prussia as his vassal, and to take the 



149 



1816—1864 A. D. 



PLATE LI. 



7^7 




□nmnnnhDD 



THE RESTORATION. 



iead everywhere. For that reason he pre- 
vented the re-establishment of the German em- 
pire, but brought about a German confedera- 
tion, with a Diet to be held at Frankfort, of 
which the Austrian emperor was to be pres- 
ident. Tiie greater and smaller German states, 
to the number of thirty-eight, were to be mem- 
bers of the confederation, which had all the 
defects of the empire without the prestige of 
its traditions. 

The restoration of the Prussian kingdom oc- 
casioned long and violent debates, principally 
on account of Russia claiming the Duchy of 
Warsaw, which contained the Polish land ac- 
quired by Prussia in the third partition. Prus- 
sia demanded in compensation the whole of 
Saxony, and was supported by Russia, while 
she was opposed by Austria, France, and Eng- 
land. It was finally settled by giving Posen 
back to Prussia, which was further compen- 
sated with about a third part of Saxony, and 
the Rhenish provinces. 

On the whole, Russia was the greatest gainer 
by this new adjustment of European boun- 
daries, as besides the Duchy of Warsaw, by 
which she thrust herself into the middle of 
Europe, she obtained Finland in the north, 
and Bessarabia and part of Moldavia in the 
south. The France of the restored Bourbons 
was the France of the elder Bourbons (the 
boundaries of 1790), enlarged by those small 
isolated scraps of foreign soil which were 
needed to make it continuous. With the view 
of coercing France on the north, Belgium and 
the Dutch provinces were erected into the 
kingdom of the Netherlands. This union 
lasted only till 1830, when Belgium revolted 
and became an independent kingdom, under 
Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg. 

The Restoration in Spain. — No nation 
disorganized as Spain was at the beginning of 
this century could have had a greater blessing 
than the Napoleonic aggression was proving 
itself to be, had it got time to work its natural 
effect. But England unluckily sent her ar- 
mies to deliver Spain. Without England Spain 
might have fought herself free, and have risen 
to national unity and dignity in the struggle. 
The outcome of all the English heroism that 
was displayed in the Peninsula was the resto- 
ration of the Bourbons in the person of Ferdi- 
nand VII., whose first act was the suppression 
of the national parliament which, at Seville 
(or Cadiz), had been busy hurling defiance at 
the French. 

This parliament {the Cortes of Cadiz) had de- 
vised, in 181 2, a constitution which, on the 
whole, was most creditable to its framers. In 
1814 Ferdinand VII. overthrew this constitu- 
tion, restored the inquisition, and ruled for six 



years despotically. Impecuniosity broke the 
neck of his power ; the treasury was empty, 
and the great source of Spain's income in for- 
mer times, her American colonies, was slip- 
ping from her grasp. By 18 18 they had all 
declared their independence. With great dif- 
ficulty Ferdinand collected an army to recon- 
quer the colonies. It assembled at Cadiz, but 
got no farther, for poor Ferdinand had no 
ships to send it across the sea. He had not 
even money to pay them, and consequently 
they mutinied. Tlie rebellious troops were 
victorious (1820), and Riego, their leader, pro- 
claimed the constitution of 1812. This inau- 
gurated a brief period of liberty, which con- 
tinued until the Spanish patriots were put 
down by the French under the Due d'An- 
gouleme (1823). Ferdinand VII. was once 
more able to ride rough-shod over all that was 
honest and virtuous from the Bidassoa to the 
lines of Gibraltar. This terrible time lasted 
until Ferdinand's death in 1833. One of his 
last acts had been the confirmation of the right 
of succession of his daughter Isabella, as 
against his brother Don Carlos. 

Isabella II. was proclaimed queen, under 
the regency of the queen-mother Christina. 
Ferdinand was not cold in his grave ere in- 
surrection broke out in the north in the name 
of Don Carlos. And though the Cortes, in 
1834, decreed his absolute exclusion from the 
succession, the insurrection grew and spread 
until it became a great civil war. The Car- 
list insurrection obliged the queen-mother to 
rely on the support of the Liberals, and con- 
sequently she chose for her prime minister 
Martinez de la Rosa. By his advice she 
promulgated the Estatuto real, a constitution 
professing to be founded upon the ancient 
liberties of Spain. 

Mendezabal, the successor of Rosa, made 
his name a household word with all Spanish 
patriots by his three great measures : the clos- 
ing of the monasteries, the sale of all the lands be- 
longing to the regular clergy, and the organization 
of a 7iational guard. In the meanwhile the 
Carlist war dragged on in ever-increasing vol- 
ume till, in 1837, the combatants had between 
them over 300,000 men in the field. Numeri- 
cally the Christinas, or the Regent's followers 
were by far the stronger, but the dash and 
generalship were all on the other side. Dis- 
sensions at length broke out in the camp of 
Don Carlos, just on the eve of his apparent 
triumph. The hill-tribes were tired of fight- 
ing. So when the government in Madrid 
guaranteed them their privileges they de- 
serted Don Carlos, and by the end of 1840 his 
cause seemed lost forever. About the same 
time (October, 1840) the Queen-regent Chris- 



150 



THE RESTORATION. 



tina was forced to resign, and Espartero, 
who had made himself conspicuous against 
the Carlists, became regent. He ruled fairly 
well for a time, but his harsh treatment of 
Barcelona, in 1842, exasperated the people to 
such a degree that all parties united against 
him, and he was forced to seek an asylum in 
England. Isabella was now declared of age 
by the Cortes (November 10, 1843). From 
this moment the policy of Spain turned al- 
most entirely on the marriage of the young 
queen. Louis Philippe, King of the French, 
with the acquiescence of Christina, had se- 
lected for Isabella's husband Fraticesco d' Assi- 
st) the eldest son of Francis de Paula, a young 
man alike incapable in mind and body, while 
he designed his own son, the Duke de Mont- 
pensier^ for Isabella's younger and healthier 
sister Maria Louisa. The young queen mani- 
fested a strong aversion for Francesco, but by 
the machinations of Louis Philippe and Chris- 
tina, Isabella's scruples to accept her cousin 
were overcome, and the King of the French 
gained a transient triumph by the simulta- 
neous marriage of Isabella with Francesco 
and of Montpensier with Maria Louisa (Octo- 
ber 10, 1846). 

Louis Philippe's deep laid plot was, how- 
ever, frustrated by the expulsion of the Or- 
leans Dynasty from France (1848), and also by 
Pueen Isabella giving birth to a daughter in 
1^851. 

The Restoration in Italy. — The arrange- 
ments made by the Congress of Vienna with 
respect to Italy were such as to leave the 
Italians universally dissatisfied. At length 
a formidable secret society was established 
among them, with a view to combine the dis- 
affected in all the states in one common effort 
against the native despots and the Austrians. 
The conspirators called themselves Carbonari 
(charcoal-burners). About the year 1831 Car- 
bonarism was superseded by a new form of 
Italian patriotism, of a more energetic char- 
acter. It arose in Piedmont, under the aus- 
pices of a number of Genoese youths, who 
organized themselves into a body called Young 
Italy. Their leader and founder was Mazzini, 
whose view was that the freedom of Italy, 
both from domestic and foreign tyranny, could 
only be attained by a union of all the separate 
states into one nation, all merging their sepa- 
rate names in the one common name of Italians, 
and under this name forming a single power- 
ful European nation. But the conspiracy 
having been prematurely discovered, the Pied- 
montese Government took steps for breaking 
it up. Many of the chief agents were arrested 
and put to death. Mazzini escaped to Great 
Britain (1833). From that time no consider- 



able attempt at insurrection was made. The 
Austrians in Northern Italy, and the native 
dynasties throughout the rest of the peninsula, 
continued to rule by military force and the 
terrors of a secret police system. The acces- 
sion of Pope Pius IX. (1846), however, was 
hailed by the Italians as the dawn of a new 
day, and immense expectations were formed 
from the liberal acts of the first year of his 
pontificate. In the midst of this excitement 
the news of the French Revolution passed 
through Italy. 

The Restoration in Austria. — The politi- 
cal history of Austria, under the rule of Met- 
TERNiCH as prime minister, first for Francis I. 
(1815-1835) and then for his son and successor 
Ferdinand II. (1835-1848), maybe said to have 
consisted in an incessant war between the cen- 
tral government and the four following ele- 
ments of revolt. 

I. German Liberalism, or the longing for 
constitutional government which existed chiefly 
among the young men of the educated classes. 

II. Magyarism or the desire of the Magyars 
(the ruling race in Hungary) to free their 
country from all Austrian influence. The 
Old Magyar party wished to concede political 
rights to none but the Magyar nobles. The 
New Hungariaii party., however, thought the 
independence of Hungary could only be 
maintained by admitting all inhabitants of 
Hungary alike to political rights and forming 
Magyars, Slavonians, and other races into one 
powerful nation. Kossuth was their leader. 

III. Italian patriotism, or the attempt of 
Northeastern Italy to free themselves from 
the Austrians. 

IV. Slavism, or the longings of the various 
Slavonian populations of the empire {Bohe- 
mians., Moravians., Croatians, Illyrians, etc.) to 
free themselves from Austrian rule. John 
KoLLAR, of Pesth, a man of a poetical and 
fervid and, at the same time, of a scholarly 
mind, first propounded the doctrine oiPanslav- 
ism, or the union of all the 80,000,000 of Slavo- 
nians (one-fifth of w^hich belonged to Austria) 
into one Slavonian empire. 

k^ privy-chancellor of State, Metternich acted 
in all matters for the emperor. A man of 
pleasing manners, and highly cultivated mind, 
it was his object to govern despotically and 
yet to let the despotism be as little felt as 
possible. This system of paternal government 
might have succeeded in a small state. In so 
large an empire, however, the personal man- 
ner of the ruler could not penetrate far ; and 
hence it was only by harshness, and severity on 
the part of the resident officials, by arrests of 
discontented individuals, and by employing 
military forces collected in one part ot the em^ 



151 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. 



pire to keep down revolt in another, that the 
various provinces and populations could be 
held together. The French Revolution of 
1848 produced an insurrection of the different 
nationalities subject to the Austrian sway. The 
whole strength of that vast but ill-compacted 
empire seemed to collapse in a single day. 

The Restoration in Germany. — Liberal 
ideas had been spontaneously making progress 
in German v. The expulsion of the older 



Bourbons from France in 1830 had agitated ■ reform. The king, on opening the chambers, 



the minor states and had obliged the majority 
of their governments to grant constitutions to 
their subjects. These constitutions were after 
the model of that of France. But the German 
princes soon found the means of imitating 
Louis Philippe and practically neutralizing the 
constitutions as much as possible by all kinds 
of restrictions on the press and on popular 
liberty. The consequences of this were a 
widespread discontent. The French Revolu- 
tion of 1848 set all Germany in a blaze. 

The Restoration in France. — Louis 
XVIIL died in 1824, and was succeeded by 
his brother, Charles X. He and his minister, 
Polignac, attempted to suspend the liberty of the 
press, to dissolve the Cha7?ibers, and to set aside 
the charter. The three ordonnances which were to 
bring this about were signed July 25, 1830. 
On the 27th the police seized the newspapers 
and destroyed the printing presses, and on 
Wednesday, July 28th, barricades arose in Paris. 
The king abdicated rather than make conces- 
sions, and the Duke of Orleans became the 
" citizen king," Louis Philippe. 

THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. 

Europe on the Eve of the Revolution. — 

The European States had gradually ranged 
themselves into two classes. In the first class 
were the constitutionally governed states : 
Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Hol- 
land, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, 
Denmark, and some of the minor German 
States. There was another class of states, 
however, including Russia, Austria, Prussia, 
some of the minor German states, and all the 
Italian states, in which the theory was thai 
the right of ruling and making laws belonged 
absolutely to certain dynasties, who, although 
morally bound to consult the interests of the 
governed populations, were not responsible 
to their subjects for their manner of doing so. 
In all such absolutely governed states there 
was a chronic strife between the people and 
their rulers. It was evident that a conflict 
was in preparation between the opposed prin- 
ciples of absolutism and representative gov- 
ernment. The year 1848 witnessed the out- 
break of this movement. 



The Outbreak in France. — It began in 
France, where the attempts of Louis Philippe 
and his prime minister, Guizot, to render the 
government gradually independent of the na- 
tion, and to follow the footsteps of the abso- 
lute empires, created a deep-felt discontent, 
which was increased by the unprecedented 
scarcity of the years 1846 and 1847. Disturb- 
ances broke out in several places, and the 
Liberal party began to agitate an electoral 



December 27, 1847, plainly intimated his con- 
viction that no reform was needed. In conse- 
quence of this very sharp debates took place 
on the address, and the opposition determined 
to have a colossal reform banquet in the 
Champs Elysees, on February 22, 1848 ; but 
it was forbidden by Guizot. 

The parliamentary Liberals resented this 
act of power and the Republicans seized the 
opportunity. Barricades were erected in the 
streets of Paris, and Louis Philippe was ob- 
liged to abdicate, and flee with his family to 
England. France was declared once more to 
be a Republic, and a provisional government 
was established under Lamarrine, Ledru- 
Rollin, Arago, etc. 

The same dangerous elements were again 
afloat as in the first revolution, and if they did 
not gain the ascendency, it was because the 
higher and middle classes, instructed by ex- 
perience, actively, opposed them. Fifty-one 
Communistic clubs were established in Paris. 
The ultra-democrats, Cabet, Blanqui, and Ras- 
pail, formed a sort of triumvirate, and incited 
these clubs to proceed to extremities, in order 
to establish a red republic under Ledru-Rol- 
lin. But the citizens and national guards 
were on the alert ; 106,000 national guards as- 
sembled to preserve the peace, and the com- 
munist party were overawed. From this day, 
April 16, 1848, the extreme party w^as de- 
feated. The revolutionists of February had 
pronounced it to be the duty of the State to 
provide employment for its citizens, and had 
followed up this declaration by the establish- 
ment of national workshops. Thus the State 
was converted into a master-manufacturer, to 
whose service, as the pay was good and the 
superintendence not over strict, flocked all 
the lazy, skulking mechanics of Paris and its 
neighborhood. They soon numbered 80,000, 
to be maintained at the public expense, for 
the ruin of private tradesmen. 

An attempt of the government to dismiss 
part of these workmen produced one of the 
bloodiest battles Paris had yet seen (300 bar- 
ricades thrown up and 16,000 people killed 
and wounded). The battle began on June 23d, 
and lasted four days ; but the insurgents were 



152 



THE AUSTRO-IIUNGARIAN EEYOLUTION. 



at length suoauecf by the superior force of the 
troops of the line and the national guards. 

General Cavaignac, who had been appointed 
Dictator during the struggle, now laid down 
his office, but was appointed chief of the Exe- 
cutive Commission, with the title of President 
of the Council. 

The fear which socialism had inspired had 
produced among the more educated classes a 
reaction in favor of monarchy. A new con- 
stitution was prepared, by which France was 
declared a republic, headed by a president, 
elected every four years by the direct suf- 
frages of all the electors, in whom was vested 
the sole executive authority. The legislative 
authority was committed to a single assembly 
of 750 members, elected by all Frenchmen who 
had attained their twenty-first year. For the 
presidency became candidates Louis Napo- 
leon, Cavaignac, Lamartine, Ledru-RoUin, and 
Raspail. In his address to the electors, Louis 
Napoleon promised order at home, peace 
abroad, a reduction of taxes, and a ministry 
chosen from the best and most able men of 
all parties. The peasantry and the common 
soldiers were liis chief supporters. The elec- 
tion took place December loth, when Napo- 
leon obtained five and a half million of votes, 
while Cavaignac, who stood next, had only 
about one and a half million, and the other 
candidates but very small numbers. Napoleon 
was installed in the office which he had thus 
triumphantly won (December 20, 1848). 

The Austro-Hungarian Revolution. — 
When the news of the French revolution ar- 
rived in Hungary, Kossuth carried in the Diet 
at Pesth an address to the emperor-king 
(March 3d) demanding a national government. 
Metternich prepared to resist this demand by 
military force. The insurrection of the Vien- 
nese, however, having driven Metternich into 
exile, and compelled Emperor Ferdinand IL 
to grant a constitution to his German subjects, 
the Hungarians gained the day. The Arch- 
duke Stephen w^as named Hungarian Palatine, 
and Kossuth was appointed Secretary of the 
Treasury (March i8th). The hopes of the 
democrats were now fixed upon Vienna, where 
the people had obtained the mastery, and were 
supported by Kossuth with the whole strength 
of Hungary. After consenting to the estab- 
lishment of a constituent imperial diet, the 
emperor had fled to the Tyrol, and Kossuth, 
through his partisans, ruled as effectually in 
Vienna as in Pesth. The sixteen millions of 
Slavonians subject to Austria thought the 
time at hand for realizing their Panslavistic 
dreams. A congress of deputies, professing 
to represent all the Slavonian populations of 
Europe (with the exception of Russia), met at 



Prague in May, 1848. Falocky, the historian 
of Bohemia, was the soul of this movement. 
The people of Prague, tired of the oratory of 
this congress, broke out in insurrection (June 
nth). The suppression of this insurrection 
by Prince Windischgratz was the first reaction- 
ary triumph of the imperial arms, and this 
was followed by a rising of the southern 
Slavonians in favor of the Emperor. The 
Croat chief Jellachich put himself at the head 
of this movement and invaded Hungary with 
65,000 men (September nth), avowedly as an 
officer of the emperor entrusted with the task 
of reducing the Hungarians to obedience. 
But they were defeated (September 29th) and 
driven toward the Austrian frontier. Great 
was the excitement in Vienna when it became 
known that Jellachich was in full retreat to- 
ward the city. The excitement increased on 
the appearance of an imperial decree, wdiich 
dissolved the Hungarian diet, placed Hun- 
gary under martial law, and appointed Jella- 
chich governor of the country. The Viennese 
recognizing in this blow struck at the Hun- 
garians, a blow struck at their own liberties, 
rose in insurrection (October 6, 1848). A rev- 
olutionary government was organized, consist- 
ing of the democratic leaders of the Viennese 
diet, assisted by some members of the Frank- 
fort parliament (among them Robert Blum). 
The military command was entrusted to Bem, a 
Pole of Galicia. For ten days Bem maintained 
the defence against the united armies of Wind- 
ischgratz and Jellachich (80,000 men), who had 
laid siege to the city in the name of the Em- 
peror. Bem's sole hope of ultimate success, 
however, was that the Hungarians, in w'hose be- 
half they had made the revolution, would come 
to their relief. They did come, but too late. 
When the Hungarian army under G'orgey ap- 
peared before Vienna (October 30, 1848) the 
bombardment of the city was at an end, and 
Windischgratz was already entering it. The 
Viennese were subjected to the usual conse- 
quences of an unsuccessful revolt. Blum and 
others were shot or hanged, and Bem escaped 
with difficulty. But a revolution now^ ensued 
at Court, and on December 2, 1848, Emperor 
Ferdinand H. abdicated in favor of his nephew, 
Francis Joseph, the present emperor. Hun- 
gary refused to acknowledge Ferdinand's ab- 
dication and rose in rebellion. The task of 
reducing Hungary was intrusted to Windisch- 
gratz, who soon entered Pesth without oppo- 
sition (January 5, 1849). But now the tide 
turned. Battle after battle was fought, and 
for four months Hungary was the scene of a 
war far more terrible and gigantic than any 
that Europe had known since the days of 
Napoleon. The successes of the Hun- 



153 



THE REVOLUTION IN GERMANY. 



garians were such as to astonish the world. 
By the month of x\pril the Austrians had 
been driven from Hungary, and the Hungari- 
ans had chosen Kossuth as their governor. 
Vienna itself was threatened. Austria now 
accepted the aid of Russia. Toward the close 
of April, a Russian army, entering Hungary 
from the north, began to co-operate with fresh 
Austrian and Croatian armies. Even against 
this overwhelming force, the Hungarians kept 
up a defense till August 13, 1849, on which 
day Gorgey surrendered to the Russians. At 
first there were rumors that the Russian em- 
peror meant to keep the country and proclaim 
its independence of Austria, with one of his 
own sons as king. Tsar Nicholas, however, 
resigned Hungary back into the hands of Em- 
peror Francis Joseph whose agents (especially 
Haynau) distinguished themselves by the most 
horrible acts of cruelty, perpetrated in his 
name, by way of vengeance. 

The Revolution in Germany. — Revolu- 
tionary symptoms first appeared on the banks 
of the Rhine. At Mannheim, the people as- 
sembled and demanded the freedom of the 
press and a Ger?nan Parliament. These de- 
mands soon re-echoed through the whole con- 
federation. In the smaller states everything 
was conceded at once. Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Hanover alone opposed any resistance to the 
people, till Austria and Prussia were likewise 
observed to be in confusion. Then, all over 
Germany, the sovereigns began bowing be- 
fore their subjects, making speeches to them, 
promising to govern them on new principles, 
and asking oblivion for the past. 

An attempt was even made to place the King 
of Prussia at the head of the German national 
movement. A proclamation was issued declar- 
ing that Prussia rises into Germany. These 
proceedings, however, produced a bad impres- 
sion in Germany, and were nearly everywhere 
received with unconcealed scorn. The leaders 
of the opposition in the various German rep- 
resentative assemblies held a meeting at Hei- 
delberg, March 8th, and published a proclama- 
tion to the German nation promising them 
a national representation, and inviting them 
to attend a preliminary parliament.^ in which a 
representative system was to be prepared. It 
was opened in the church of St. Paul, at Frank- 
fort, on March 31, 1848, where it was agreed 
that a general cofistituent assembly should be held 
at Frankfort, to which deputies should be sent 
(i for every 50,000) from every part of Ger- 
many. It assembled on May i8th for the pur- 
pose of giving Germany a constitution. 

They decided finally to revive the German 
Empire, but with the addition of an Imperial 
Parliament. Archduke John, uncle of Em- 



peror Francis Joseph, was chosen Imperial 
Vicar. 

The Diet of the Confederation held then its 
last sitting (July 12th), and handed over its 
power to the newly elected German Parlia- 
ment, which was now the supreme authority 
in the empire. This parliament elected, by a 
small majority, the King of Prussia hereditary 
Emperor (March 28, 1849), a dignity, however, 
which Frederick William IV. declined to ac- 
cept. After this election Austria withdrew 
her representatives from the parliament, which 
example was soon followed by Prussia and 
Saxony. That assembly was also reduced, 
by the desertion of other members, to little 
more than one hundred persons, who, deem- 
ing themselves no longer secure in Frank- 
fort, transferred their sittings to Stuttgardt. 
Here they deposed the imperial vicar, and 
appointed a new regency, consisting of five 
members. But, as they began to call the peo- 
ple to arms, they were dispersed by the Wir- 
temberg government (June 18, 1849). 

Meanwhile, in the rest of Germany also, 
matters were gradually resuming their ancient 
course. The question of the German consti- 
tution, however, still remained a cause of dis- 
union. Austria, backed by the influence of 
Russia, succeeded in re-establishing the federal 
constitution with the Frankfort Diet, as ar- 
ranged in 1815. The Prussian Government now 
endeavored, in opposition to Austria, to form 
a new confederation, of which Prussia was to 
be the presiding power, and which was to con- 
sist of all the German States, except Austria. 
With this view a German Parliament was con- 
voked at Erfurt (March 20, 1850), which, 
however, after a few sittings, indefinitely ad- 
journed. 

Frederick William IV. made another at- 
tempt to form a separate league, by summon- 
ing a congress of princes at Berlin, in May. 
At the same time Austria had summoned the 
Diet of the Confederation to meet at Frankfort, 
which was attended by representatives from 
all the States, except Prussia and Oldenburg. 
Thus, two rival congresses were sitting at the 
same time ; one at Berlin, to establish a new 
confederation under Prussian influence, and 
one at Frankfort, to maintain the old one, un- 
der the supremacy of Austria. The quarrel 
between Prussia and Austria was brought to 
an issue by the disturbances in Hesse-Cassel, 
where the elector openly outraged the consti- 
tution by proceeding to levy taxes on his own 
authority, in consequence of which the people 
rose in revolt, and drove him from his domin- 
ions. The Diet at Frankfort resolved to sup- 
port the elector against his subjects, while 
Prussia took up the opposite side and moved 



154 



THE REVOLUTION IN ITALY. 



a large military force toward the Hessian 
frontier. A collision appeared inevitable, 
when hostilities were averted by Russian in- 
terference. 

Tsar Nicholas, then the virtual dictator of 
Europe, forced Prussia to recall her troops. 
The convention of Olmiitz (November 29, 
1850) put the seal to Prussia's humiliation. 
There the whole fabric of Prussian hegemony 
went down, and the German dream of unity 
seemed more illusory than ever. Triumphant 
Austria now boldly demanded admission into 
the German confederacy, with all her hetero- 
geneous peoples. Humiliated Prussia was 
half inclined to yield, but England and France 
backed the smaller states in their resistance to 
this arrogant project, which resulted in a re- 
establishing of the Diet as it had been ar- 
ranged in 1815. 

The Revolution in Italy. — When the tid- 
ings of the fall of the July throne arrived in 
Italy, all native despotisms fell before the blast 
of this news. Charles Albert, in the Sardinian 
States; Ferdinand H. in Naples, the Grand- 
Duke Leopold in Tuscany, and the Dukes of 
Modena and Parma could only keep their 
thrones by giving or promising constitutions. 
But, besides thus yielding to the revolutionary 
force within their own dominions, these sov- 
ereigns found themselves obliged to join a 
common enterprise for driving the Austrians 
out of Northern Italy. Not without great hes- 
itation most of the Italian princes joined in 
the league against their common protector, 
Austria. Charles Albert of Sardinia alone 
took up the national cause with spirit. He 
boldly undertook to lead the Italians. But 
beaten at Custozza and Novara he had to ab- 
dicate in favor of his son Victor Emanuel. 
The Venetians, who had associated themselves 
with Charles Albert, resolved, notwithstanding 
his defeat, to continue the war of independ- 
ence on their own account ; and, raising their 
ancient republican standard of St. Mark, they 
constituted themselves into a republic, under 
a triumvirate, of whom the most influential 
member was Manin. 

After Lombardy was again subdued, Rad- 
ETSKY proceeded to invest Venice (summer of 
1848). It was not reduced by the Austrians 
till August 22, 1849, partly by bombardment, 
partly through the effects of famine. 

The defeat of Charles Albert had been a 
heavy blow to Italian freedom ; and the Italian 
sovereigns availed themselves of it to begin a 
reactionary policy within their respective 
states. Ferdinand II. (King Bomba) set the 
example. As early as May, 1848, he had con- 
trived, after a fearful massacre in the streets, 
to become master of Naples. After the bat- 



tle of Custozza (July 24, 1848) he openly pro. 
fessed his determination to restore despotism 
through his dominions. After he had reduced 
Naples, Sicily continued in a state of rebellion, 
the inhabitants having chosen (July, 1848) 
Ferdinand, brother of Victor Emanuel, for 
their king. He declined, however, to accept 
the proffered crown. Filangieri, with a Nea- 
politan army, landed at Messina, and captured 
that town after a sanguinary struggle. In 
the spring of 1849, Filangieri reduced Catania 
and Syracuse, and on April 23, 1849, he en- 
tered Palermo, putting an end to the rebellion. 

In the Papal States, Pope Pius IX. contin- 
ued to govern the Romans according to the 
constitution he had granted them. His prin- 
cipal adviser was Count Rossi, who, having 
incurred the bitter hatred of the demagogues, 
was assassinated (November 15, 1848). Upon 
this the mob attacked the pope in the Quiri- 
nal, and murdered his secretary. Cardinal Pal- 
ma. The pope succeeded in escaping, and be- 
took himself to Gaeta. The Roman Parliament 
having in vain implored him to return, pro- 
ceeded to establish a provincial government. 
At length (February 5, 1849) was opened at 
Rome a general Italian Constituent Assembly, 
which began by deposing the pope as a tem- 
poral prince and proclaiming the Roman re- 
public (February 8th). A triumvirate having 
been chosen to form the executive, Mazzini 
became chief triumvir. But soon a reaction 
commenced. The Austrians began to enter 
Central Italy, while France and Spain also 
despatched troops to the pope's aid. A divi- 
sion of 6,000 French troops, under General 
Oudinot, landed at Civita Vecchia (April 25th) 
and captured Rome on July 3, 1849. 

The French remained exclusive masters of 
the city, till April, 1850, when the pope re- 
turned, and re-established his government. 

But the cause of Italian unity and independ- 
ence was not lost. One result of the Franco- 
Prussian War was the incorporation of the 
Papal States with Italy, and Rome became the 
capital of United Italy October 9, 1870. The 
first king was Victor Emmanuel, who was suc- 
ceeded at his death in 1878 by his son Hum- 
bert I. King Humbert was murdered by an 
anarchist, at Monza, July 29, 1900. His only 
son, the Prince of Naples, succeeded to the 
throne as Victor Emmanuel HI. 

The Danish Succession Question. — 
The two Elbe duchies of Sleswick and Holstein 
were ruled as Duke by the King of Denmark. 
In the duchies females were excluded from 
succeeding to the sovereignty, though such 
was not the case in Denmark. 

Since 1839 Christian VIII. was King of Den- 
mark, whose only son Frederick did not prom- 



155 



THE SECOND EMPIRE. 



ise to leave any posterity. His cousin Fred- 
erick, Landgrave of Hessia, son of his aunt 
Charlotte, was, therefore, the eventual heir of 
Denmark. He was married to Alexandra, 
daughter of Tsar Nicholas, and hence the im- 
perial family of Russia had obtained a near in- 
terest in the Danish succession. 

On the other hand, Duke Christian of Au- 
gustenburg, as the nearest male agnate of the 
Danish royal family, began to entertain hopes 
of succeeding in the Elbe duchies, and did 
everything that lay in his power to support 
the German party in them. 

The beginning of the succession troubles 
dates from December 21, 1844, when a resolu- 
tion was introduced in the Danish Congress to 
declare Sleswick-Holstein an integral part of 
the Danish monarchy, and, therefore, subject 
to the Danish law of female succession. Hol- 
stein protested, and for the present the meas- 
ure was allowed to rest ; but in July, 1846, 
King Christian VIII., in the interests of Rus- 
sian policy, issued letters-patent extending the 
Danish law of female succession to the whole 
of his dominions. 

The German party in the duchies were 
alarmed at this step, and Holstein appealed to 
the Confederate Diet (August 3d). King Chris- 
tian at once promised that the rights of the Ger- 
man Confederacy, and the succession of the 
legal magnates, should not be interfered with. 

Here the matter remained till the death of 
Christian VIII. (January 20, 1848). His son 
and successor, Frederick VII., anxious for the 
integrity of the monarchy, tried to terminate 
the difficulty by granting a very liberal con- 
stitution, which, however, was to supersede 
the separate administrations of the duchies, 
and thus virtually to incorporate them with 
Denmark. 

Against this the duchies protested at once, 
with a counter-demand of the incorporation of 
both with the German Confederacy (March 
18, 1848). They established a provisional gov- 
ernment, and made ready for armed resistance 
(March 24th). Germany, anxious to acquire 
ports on the German Ocean (an almost indis- 
pensable condition to the creation of a Ger- 
man navy), applauded the action of the 
duchies, and promised assistance. On April 
4, 1848, Frederick William of Prussia was for- 
mally invited, in the name of the confederacy, 
to assume the management of the Danish 
question, and before the end of the month 
General Wrangel had entered Holstein and 
taken the Dannewirk by storm. The Danes, 
however, blockaded the German ports, and 
nearly ruined the German trade, which forced 
the Germans to conclude an armistice at Mal- 
moe (August 27th). 



During this armistice Sleswick-Holstein 
should have a common government, one-half 
to be appointed by Denmark, the other half 
by Prussia. 

But Denmark soon became dissatisfied with 
this arrangement, terminated the armistice 
(April 26, 1849), ^^d> backed by the great 
powers, forced Prussia to relinquish the 
duchies to her (July 2, 1850). The rights of 
the German Confederacy in Holstein, how- 
ever, were maintained. The duchies protest- 
ed against this arrangement, and, when this 
proved to be in vain, renewed the war on their 
own account, but were finally reduced to sub- 
mission to the King of Denmark, by the inter- 
vention of Austria. 

The affairs of Denmark were ultimately ar- 
ranged at the instance of Tsar Nicholas, by 
the treaty of London (May 8, 1852), which ex- 
tended the Holstein law of male succession 
to the whole of the dominions of the Danish 
king. But the nearest male agnate (the Duke 
of Augustenburg) was excluded from the suc- 
cession on account of the actual part he had 
taken in the revolt of the duchies. All the 
dominions then united under the sceptre of 
Denmark were to devolve to Prince Christian 
of Glucksburg (the second male agnate) and 
upon his issue in the male line by his mar- 
riage with Louisa, Princess of Hessia. 

THE SECOND EMPIRE (1852-1870). 

The Foundation of the Second Empire. 

— From the outset of his presidential career, 
Louis Napoleon's sole aim was the overthrow of 
the Republic. Knowing the immense influence 
of the clergy, he was anxious to ingratiate 
himself with them. For this purpose he had 
ordered the attack on Rome, which led to the 
return of the pope to the Vatican (April, 1850). 
But this policy inaugurated the struggle 
between Louis Napoleon and the Assembly. 
He had, however, the majority of Frenchmen 
on his side, who rejoiced in the rehabilitation 
of the pope, and who considered that the 
country had been coerced in the act of declar- 
ing itself a republic. The Assembly, in the 
meanwhile, lost more and more credit with 
all classes. The famous Electoral Law (May 31, 
1850), which restricted universal suffrage, 
estranged the great mass of the lower classes. 
Napoleon, on the other hand, endeared him- 
self to them by proposing to the Assembly 
(November 4, 1850) the re-establishment of 
universaf suffrage. The rejection of this pro- 
posal deprived the Assembly of its last rem- 
nant of popularity. The industry and com- 
merce of France suffered greatly through all 
these dissensions, and the industrial classes 
began to look upon the Assembly as a stum- 



156 



THE CKIMEAN WAK. 



bling-block on the road to a settled govern- 
ment. 

The presidential term would expire in May, 
1852, and under the existing constitution 
Louis Napoleon was not re-eligible. But no 
one believed in, or cared for the permanency 
of this constitution ; neither did anyone be- 
lieve that Napoleon would give up the power 
he held, neither did the large majority wish 
him to give it up. 

The 2d of December, 185 1 (tlie anniversary 
of the battle of Austerlitz), was the day chosen 
by Louis Napoleon to make an end to this 
painful situation. The night before, three 
important measures were determined upon, 
and at once carried out: The nocturnal arrest 
of all dangerous representatives ; the distrib- 
ution of 30,000 men through Paris, and the 
printing and publishing of four proclamations 
by which Paris and the adjacent departments ivere 
proclaimed in a state of siege, the Assembly ivas 
dissolved, universal suffrage was re-established and 
the French people were convoked to their electoral 
meetings (December 14-21). 

When the majority of the Assembly heard 
of this, they hastened to their palace to depose 
the President. Admittance being refused, 
they held a meeting at the Mairie of the tenth 
arrondissement. Here they were arrested. 
Some resistance was attempted, but the fear 
of anarchy induced the upper and middle 
classes to support the President ; the lower 
classes had been gained by the restoration of 
universal suffrage. Within three weeks (De- 
cember 20th), France, by more than seven 
millions of votes, elected Louis Napoleon 
President for ten years, and intrusted him with 
the making of a new constitution, which was 
promulgated January 14, 1852. 

Nominally assisted by a council of state, a 
senate, and a legislative body, Louis Napoleon 
was really now autocrat. During a journey 
through the provinces in September, 1852, he 
was received everywhere with cries of "" Vive 
r Empereur ! " On returning to Paris the Moniteur 
announced that the manifest demonstrations 
in favor of the Empire imposed on the Presi- 
dent the duty of consulting the Senate, which 
body accordingly was directed to debate the 
restoration of the empire, but it was to be 
sanctioned by the universal suffrage of the 
nation. 

The number of votes in favor of the restora- 
tion of the empire reached nearly eight mill- 
ions, and on December 2, 1852, the President 
was proclaimed Emperor, with the title of 
Napoleon III. 

The Crimean War (1854-1856). — The only 
country in Europe which had not been affected 
by the great upheaval of 1848 was Russia. 



Tsar Nicholas looked upon himself as the au- 
tocrat of Europe. He thought the time had 
come for annexing the Balkan peilinsula and 
seizing the ''^ key to the Russian house,'' Con- 
stantinople. After collecting a fleet and army 
at Sebastopol, the Tsar proposed to the Brit- 
ish government a partition of Turkey, by which 
Egypt was to fall to the share of England. 
The offer was promptly rejected. It was then 
made to France with the same result. Eng- 
land's loudly expressed horror of war encour- 
aged the Tsar to believe that he might, with 
impunity, carry out his plans without its co- 
operation. 

As for an alliance between England and 
France, he considered it the primary condi- 
tion of European politics that the two great 
Western nations should be in antagonism. 
The Tsar despatched Prince Mentchekoff to 
Constantinople with demands which, if con- 
ceded, would virtually reduce Turkey to the 
condition of a Russian province. Mentche- 
koff delivered his message with marks of the 
greatest contempt, and, after handing in an 
ultimatum that was discarded, took his de- 
parture (May 2ist). Within three days of his 
departure France and England were beginning 
to concert resistance to Russia, and before 
the end of May Lord Stratford, the English 
ambassador in Constantinople, was instructed 
to inform the Porte that the whole force of 
the British Empire should be used for the 
protection of the integrity of the Osmanli Em- 
pire. 

Russia now declared (May 31st) that her 
troops would in a few weeks cross the frontier 
(the river Pruth) and occupy Moldavia and 
Wallachia, not to wage war, but to obtain ma- 
terial guarantees for the fulfilment of the 
Tsar's demands. The French and English 
fleets were at once despatched to the East, 
and on June 13th they cast anchor in Besika 
Bay, ready to enter the Dardanelles at a mo- 
ment's notice. Early in July, 1853, the Rus- 
sians crossed the boundary, but contented 
themselves with occupying the left bank of 
the Danube. On October 5th they were or- 
dered to evacuate the Turkish territory within 
fifteen days, and on October 14th the Anglo- 
French fleet entered the Dardanelles. 

The alternative now before the Tsar was 
either to evacuate the Turkish territory, or to 
declare war. He chose the last. On Novem- 
ber ist Nicholas issued his declaration of war 
against the Osmanli Empire. Still, the con- 
tinuance of the forty years' peace was not yet 
despaired of. 

But on November 30th the destruction of 
the Turkish fleet at Sinope extinguished the 
last hope. As the Anglo-French fleet was 



157 



THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



now at anchor in the Bosporus, this act ap- 
peared a wilful defiance of the Western pow- 
ers. They ordered their admirals to take care 
that the Russian fleet did no more damage in 
the Black Sea. From that time the Russian 
navy was shut up in the harbor of Sebastopol. 

On March 28, 1854, war was declared against 
Russia both by England and France. The 
war soon concentrated itself in the Crimea 
(September, 1854), and lasted till March, 1856, 
when the strength of Russia was so much im- 
paired that she was glad to conclude a peace 
which banished her fleets from the Black Sea. 

Consequences of the Crimean War. — 
The great result of this Crimean War was 
that Russia had lost that commanding position 
which made her master of Germany, and had 
lost it through the treachery of Austria. Out 
of revenge, she encouraged the Sardinian plans 
for driving the Austrians out of Italy. Cavour 
had put Napoleon under obligations by his 
co-operation in the Crimea, and now wanted 
a French alliance to free his country from the 
Austrians. The help was given, and a Franco- 
Sardinian army drove the Austrians across the 
Mincio (July, 1859). Lombardy was added to 
Sardinia. In the next year. Central and South- 
ern Italy drove out their dynasts, and united 
with the kingdom of Victor Emanuel. 

The Second Danish War of 1864.— The 
Crimean War had completely altered the re- 
lations of all the powers who were parties to 
the London treaty of 1852. Russia was no 
longer prepared to fight for the execution 
of an arrangement which she had originated. 
Tsar Alexander II., who (since March 2, 1855), 
had succeeded his father Nicholas, was busily 
engaged in carrying out the great work of his 
reign, the emancipation of the serfs, and still 
more deeply involved in restoring his shaken 
authority in Poland. Therefore, when Fred- 
erick VII. of Denmark died (November 15, 
1863), it was soon seen that the Treaty of Lon- 
don could not be executed. Germany, eager 
to despoil Denmark, took possession of Hol- 
stein and seemed about to enter Sleswick, when 
Austria and Prussia assumed the burden of 
the quarrel. The new King of Denmark, 
Christian IX., having announced his inten- 
tion to separate Sleswick from Holstein and 
incorporate it with Denmark, Austria and Prus- 
sia objected in the name of the Duke of Au- 
gustenburg, maintaining that by an old treaty 
(1460) the two duchies could not be separated. 
Denmark insisting on its right to incorporate 
Sleswick, the Austro-Prussian army crossed the 
Eider, February i, 1864, and forced King Chris- 
tian to resign all his rights in the duchies in 
favor of Austria and Prussia as co-proprietors. 
Prussia wished to annex the duchies. Austria 



desired no increase of territory, but was re- 
solved that Prussia should obtain none ; it 
favored the claims of the Prince of Augusten- 
burg, whose pretensions were opposed by 
Prussia. The dispute between them ran so 
high that, in the summer of 1865, the out- 
break of war appeared almost inevitable. The 
Gastein Convention postponed the outbreak. 
The two powers agreed between themselves 
to ignore all their own previous declarations 
and professions, and to declare themselves the 
joint successors, by right of conquest, to King 
Christian's claims upon the duchies, the pro- 
visional administration of which they pro- 
ceeded to divide between them, Prussia taking 
Sleswick, Austria Holstein. 

Prussia strictly forbade all agitation in Sles- 
wick in favor of the Prince of Augustenburg. 
Austria, on the other hand, allowed the prince's 
friends to promote his cause in Holstein as 
much as they chose. On January 26, 1866, 
Bismarck addressed a formal protest to the 
Austrian government against its policy in Hol- 
stein. A categorical statement of its future 
intentions was demanded. Austria returned 
a temperate answer (February 7th), but 
declined the categorical statement required. 
Bismarck, the leading Prussian minister, de- 
clared that he would refrain in future from 
any communication whatsoever with Austria 
relative to the duchies. 

Austro-Prussian War of 1866. — It was 
now very evident that war could not long be 
deferred. While Austria was doing her ut- 
most to excite the German Confederacy against 
Prussia, Bismarck looked around for some ac- 
tive ally who might counterbalance the well- 
known traditional influence of Austria with 
the secondary German states. That ally was 
found at once in Austria's "natural enemy" 
Italy, and with her an offensive and defensive 
alliance was speedily concluded. Napoleon 
III., whose influence over Italy at that period 
was supreme, might have prevented the alli- 
ance. But he had been secured by Bismarck 
beforehand (at Biarritz in 1865), by the offer 
of the Rhine frontier, Bismarck knew that 
this offer would neither be accepted nor re- 
jected. But in refusing to commit himself, 
Napoleon had conceded all that Prussia really 
desired — the neutrality of France. Bismarck 
was now ready for war. On June 16, 1866, 
the Prussians crossed the Saxon frontier and 
made themselves masters of the whole of Sax- 
ony. The Saxon troops had gone to join the 
Austrians in Bohemia, whither they were fol- 
lowed by the Prussians. The Italian army 
crossed the Mincio, but was defeated at Cus- 
tozza (June 24th). The war, however, was 
decided by the great Prussian victory of Konigs- 



158 



1866 A. D. 



PLATE LIT. 




THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAK WAR. 



gratz (July 3d). Austria was no longer able 
to hold Venice, and gave it up to Napoleon, 
who handed it over to Italy (November 7th). 
This cession united the whole of Italy, with 
the exception of the district around Rome. 
This battle of Koniggratz raised Prussia to 
the first rank among the European powers. 
By the Peace of Prague (August 23, 1866), 
Austria was excluded from the German Con- 
federation, and must consent to the formation 
of the North German Confederacy. 

The Franco-Prussian War. — France had 
been violently excited by the Prussian suc- 
cess, the tremendous consequences of which 
were unfolding themselves before her eyes. 
There was no denying the fact that the Prus- 
sians had displayed all the best characteristics 
of a great military power. And the French 
army was in no condition to take the field, in 
case the friendly relations which then existed 
should be interrupted. Even before the pre- 
liminaries of peace were settled, France gave 
Prussia to understand that she would have to 
be compensated for the political changes to 
which these successes must give rise, and 
early in August, 1866, the French ambassador 
at Berlin formally demanded the cession of 
the left bank of the Rhine. Prussia sternly re- 
fused, and Napoleon was in no condition to 
press his claim. 

In July, 1870, General Prim offered the 
crown of Spain to Prince Leopold of Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen, a distant relation of the 
King of Prussia. Napoleon, anxious for an 
opportunity to strengthen his waning popu- 
larity, resolved to object to Leopold's candi- 
dature. But he was resolved to avoid war. 
For, although assured by his marshals that all 
was ready for war, one thing troubled him. If 
a war had to be waged there was no man ca- 
pable of directing it. When he saw that, in 
spite of himself, he was slowly drifting into 
war, he tried to avert it by submitting the 
question to a Congress of the Great Powers. 

On the same day on which this resolution 
was taken, Napoleon's attention was called to 
the faimous article inserted in the German 
newspapers, in which it was stated that the 
King of Prussia had dismissed Benedetti, tell- 
ing him that he had nothing further to add. 
Bismarck had circulated this statement, in or- 
der to compromise everything, to force the 
hand of France, and to bring on war. And 
he attained his object. 

Deputies and Senators vied with each other 
in expressing most forcibly the necessity for 
replying to this insolence by a declaration of 
war. The Empress seconded this warmly, and 
under such impulses Napoleon made a proc- 
lamation (July 19, 1870), in which he said. 



" that Prussia, launched on the path of inva- 
sion, had aroused defiance everywhere, neces- 
sitated exaggerated armaments, and turned 
Europe into a camp where nothing but uncer- 
tainty reigned." 

Napoleon had hoped that the South Ger- 
mans, if they did not actually join France, 
would at least remain neutral. But, on July 
20th, the South German princes formally an- 
nounced to the King of Prussia that their 
forces were at his disposal. The Prussian 
Crown Prince at once left Berlin to take the 
command of the Southern armies. When the 
Germans received the French declaration of 
war, they were ready for action. Their army 
numbered nearly a million, for whom every- 
thing, to the minutest particular had been 
provided. The French were not ready (Na- 
poleon having been deceived by his marshals), 
besides being inferior in numbers (350,000 at 
the utmost), and inferior as regards command- 
ers possessing the requisite foresight and 
strategical knowledge. 

Marshal MacMahon, recalled from Africa to 
lead the First Army Corps into Germany, was 
badly beaten by the Crown Prince at Weissen- 
burg (August 4th), and at Worth (August 6th). 
The whole German army entered France, and 
on August 14th the Prussians occupied Nancy. 
The greater part of the French army was con- 
centrated at Metz, under Bazaine ; when he 
made an attempt to join MacMahon (who had 
retreated to the camp at Chalons), he was de- 
feated at Gravelotte (August i8th), and forced 
to take refuge in Metz. MacMahon, trying to 
join Bazaine in Metz, was forced along toward 
Sedan^ into which the French were driven 
from all sides. The iron ring of the German 
army surrounded the doomed town. Napo- 
leon, in order to prevent a useless effusion of 
blood, surrendered with 84,000 men (Septem- 
ber 2d). Paris went nearly mad with rage and 
disappointment when it heard the news. The 
emperor was deposed. A provisional govern- 
ment was formed, w^hich opened negotiations 
for peace. These, however, came to noth- 
ing, in consequence of a declaration of Jules 
Favre that not a stone of the French fort- 
resses nor an inch of French territory should 
be ceded. The Prussians continued to ad- 
vance, and Paris was soon encircled by them. 
The siege lasted one hundred and thirty-one 
days. The city was forced to surrender on 
January 28, 187 1. At the same time a general 
armistice was agreed upon. This was followed 
by a treaty of peace (February 26, 187 1), under 
which the French gave up Alsace and Lor- 
raine, consented to dismantle several for- 
tresses, and to pay the enormous indemnity of 
$1,000,000,000 (five milliards of francs). 



159 



, 



1871 A. D. 



PLATE LITI. 




THE SPANISH REVOLUTION AND FRENCH REPUBLIC. 



THE PRUSSIAN ASCENDENCY. 

Re-establishment of the German Em- 
pire. — One of the results of the German vic- 
tories over France was the re-establishmetit of the 
German Empire. The national feeling engen- 
dered on the battle-fields, in the midst of com- 
mon dangers and common hopes, gave rise to a 
desire fora closer union between the North and 
South of Germany. About the middle of Oc- 
tober, 1870, plenipotentiaries were sent from 
all the southern states to Versailles for the 
purpose of bringing about a closer union. 
This resulted in changing the Northern Con- 
federacy into a German Confederacy. King 
Louis II. of Bavaria proposed that the Presi- 
dent of the German Confederacy should re- 
ceive the title of German Emperor. Accord- 
ingly, on January 18, 1871, King William of 
Prussia, in the Hall of Mirrors, in the Palace of 
Versailles, was solemnly proclaimed emperor. 

Another result of the war was the incorpo- 
ration of the Papal States with Italy. Rome 
became the capital of United Italy (October 
9, 1870). 

The Spanish Revolution. — After the ill- 
omened marriage of Queen Isabella the gov- 
ernment of the country mainly depended on 
the queen's favorites, for whose sole benefit the 
administration was conducted. At length 
Spain became disgusted with the wicked 
woman ; the various parties united them- 
selves. Isabella had to flee and was de- 
throned (September 30, 1868). For two years 
now Spain went a begging for a king.* At 
last (November 16, 1870) they succeeded in 
getting the King of Italy's second son, Ama- 
deo, a man thoroughly alive to constitutional 
right, loyal to truth and the will of the na- 
tion. 

But in such a country, so split into sections 
and factions, it was impossible that he could 
succeed. He held on bravely for a while 
(December 30, 1870, to February 11, 1873), 
but after two years he laid down his thorny 
crown. His abdication was the beginning of 
a general anarchy. The republic was pro- 
claimed. Castelar tried in vain to set it firmly 
on its feet. In November, 1874, the condition 
of the Spanish republic had become so intol- 
erable that the mass of the people began to 
long for a restoration of the Bourbons in the 
person of Alfonso, son of Isabella. He was 
proclaimed King Alfonso XII. on December 
30, 1874 (died November 25, 1885). 

'Among the many foreign princes to whom the Spanish 
throne was offered by Prim was that Prijice of Hohenzollern, 
whose election was represented in Paris as a Prussian intrigue 
endangering the safety of France, and ultimately led to the 
declaration of war, which Napoleon III. declared was forced 
upon him by Prussia. 



The Third French Republic— The war 

so wickedly declared by the second empire 
against Prussia had resulted in the speedy 
defeat of the French armies and the overthrow 
of the Napoleonic dynasty. To the empire 
succeeded (September 4, 1870) the Government 
of National Defence. It arose out of a street 
riot, the forcible invasion of a national parlia- 
ment, and the overthrow of an established con- 
stitution. But, although it had not a shadow 
of legal right, it was just then the only gov- 
ernment possible. This government not only 
made peace for the nation, but engaged to get 
that peace ratified by a National Assembly; 
for the German conqueror needed a legal 
government to sign away Alsace-Lorraine and 
to pay the five milliards. 

The elections to this National Assembly 
were held by surprise, while one-third of 
France was in the hands of the conqueror, the 
capital cut off from the country, and consulta- 
tion physically impossible. The natural con- 
sequence was that this assembly was in no 
sense the representative of France. While 
Paris and the chief cities chose advanced re- 
publicans, the great majority of the country 
voters nominated men of social position who 
were mainly Monarchists. 

The National Assembly met February 12, 
187 1, in the theatre at Bordeaux, and five 
days later Thiers was elected chief of the 
executive. On March ist it ratified the pre- 
liminaries of the peace with Germany, and 
then the task committed to them was done. 
Its plain duty was now to retire, and call 
upon the nation to form a regular constituent 
body to decide on the future of the country. 
But it set up a claim to sovereign power. 
At least 500 (out of 653) members were 
avowed Monarchists. If they did not pro- 
claim the monarchy, it was simply because 
they could not agree on the monarch. They 
hooted the republican minority ; they sup- 
pressed the deputies of Paris ; they pro- 
claimed their antipathy to Paris ; they insisted 
on transferring the capital to Versailles, and 
resolved to sit and govern away from Paris. 
Finally, they ordered up troops of the line 
from the provinces to overawe Paris, which 
was first to be disarmed and then treated as a 
conquered city. 

The whole of Paris was outraged and 
alarmed by the reckless policy of the assem- 
bly and their avowed hostility to the capital. 
In the midst of the general discontent the 
workmen resolved to act. They seized the 
cannon that they might not be disarmed. 
They put themselves on the defensive. The 
stroke attempted by the government failed. 
Within twenty-four hours the workmen were 



160 



THE COMMUNE IN PARIS. 



masters of Paris. They proclaimed the com- 
mune'^ (Saturday, March i8, 1871). 

As a measure of conciliation, at the outset, 
the commune won over the greater part of the 
tenants in Paris by decreeing that all rents 
due since October, 1870, were remitted. Hav- 
ing thus secured the good will of the masses, 
they proceeded to make preparations to de- 
fend themselves against the National Assem- 
bly, during which terrible acts of terrorism, 
brutality, and pillage were committed. 

One of the first acts of vandalism was the 
pulling down of the column in the place Ven- 
dome (May i6th). The destruction of the 
house of Thiers followed. 

A deadly vengeance against Paris was being 
planned by the National Assembly. 

At the appointed signal (May 21st) the Ger- 
mans, on their side, closed the city behind, 
while treachery opened it to the army of the 
assembly in the front. When they saw their 
cause was lost the Parisians proceeded (May 
24th) to burn the Tuileries, the Palais Royal, 
the H6tel-de-Ville, and other public buildings. 
To these horrors was added the foul murder 
of the Archbishop of Paris, with sixty-eight 
other persons, whom the communists had 
seized as hostages. Not before Sunday, May 
28th, was order restored in Paris. While 
Thiers was crushing the commune in Paris, 
reorganizing the army, getting rid of the Ger- 
man occupation, he gave the monarchists the 
fullest opportunity to learn the hopelessness 
of their cause. When they perceived that 
Thiers was unwilling to further their plans 
they forced him to resign (May 24, 1873), and 
placed at the head of the administration a 
marshal of the empire, who was domestically 
related to the great legitimist families, Mac- 
Mahon. He was placed in power for seven 
years (septennate). 

On February 25, 1875, the National Assem- 
bly gave France a constitution which is still in 
force (revised July, 1884, and June, 1885). It 
vests the legislative power in an assembly of 
two houses, the Chamber of Deputies and the 
Senate, and the executive in a chief magistrate 

* Commune is the French word for corporation, or munici- 
pahty. Every town and village in France has its commune, or 
municipality, in which is vested the corporate property {Les 
biens communaux). The similarity, however, of the French 
word commune (corporation) to the English word for express- 
ing the doctrine of community of goods has led to a great 
amount of misconception and confusion. The revolution of 
the commune was entirely political. They proceeded to es- 
tablish a commune in Paris, and expected their example to 
be followed by all the towns and villages in France, each 
declaring their communal independence and electing their 
own communal council which had to manage all the local af- 
lairs. Each communal council should elect some members 
ot its own body to represent the commune in the depart- 
mental council. The departmental councils in their turn 
should elect some of their number to represent the depart- 
ment in the national council. 



161 



called President of the Republic. The total 
number of deputies is 584. The Senate is 
composed of 300 members, of whom 75 origi- 
nally held their seats for life ; but by tlie Sen- 
ate bill of 1884 it was enacted that vacancies 
among the existing life-senatorships should be 
filled up as they arose by the election of or- 
dinary nine-year senators. 

Then, and not till then, the National Assem- 
bly reluctantly retired (March 8, 1876). At the 
time of his election. Marshal MacMahon en- 
joyed an amount of prestige which no other 
military man possessed. During his adminis- 
tration, however, he gradually, lost the hold he 
had on the French people. 

In 1878 it became evident that he had no 
political weight whatever, and that the coun- 
try did not rely on him for the preservation 
of order. The senatorial elections of 1879 ^t 
length put the government firmly in posses- 
sion of the republicans. MacMahon could not 
make himself the instrument of the new re- 
forms in the administration, and when called 
on to sacrifice old army friends to political 
necessities he sent in his resignation (January 
30. 1879). 

Grevy, president of the chambers, was 
chosen as his successor (re-elected December 
1885). 

The Russo-Turkish War of 1878.— Dur- 
ing the period of the great migrations the 
Slavonians came into the Balkan Peninsula 
in all manner of characters — as captives, as 
mercenaries, as allies, and finally as conquer- 
ors. One of the oldest Slavonic migrations 
settled, about 450 a.d., in depopulated Moesia, 
the tract between the Danube and the Balkan. 
They called themselves Slovieni, and their 
country Slovienia. In 679 they were con- 
quered by the small but warlike Finnic tribe 
of the Bulgarians. They were soon absorbed 
by their Slavonic subjects, who retained the 
name of their conquerors — Bulgarians. Since 
1396 they have been subject to the Turks. 

In the beginning of the seventh century 
the northern provinces of the Byzantine Em- 
pire were overrun by the Tartar tribe of 
the Avars. To root out this swarm and re- 
people the land, the Emperor Heraclius in- 
vited into his dominions certain Slavonic 
tribes, the Serbians. They settled directly 
west of the Bulgarians, and gave the name of 
Serbia to their new home, which extended 
from the river Tifnok, in the east, to the Adri- 
atic, at Antivari, in the west. The Turks con- 
quered it in 1389. But in 1829 it recovered 
partially its independence, and from 1867 it 
simply acknowledged the Turkish overlord- 
ship. The Serbians who settled in the valley 
of the Bosna (an affluent of the Save) called 



THE EUSSO-TUEKISH WAR. 



tan would indorse her disapproval of the Ber- 
Jin Memorandum. But the sultan, fearing the 
Russians, declared his willingness to accept it. 
This declaration put an end to his existence. 
He was deposed ; and, conforming to the time- 
honored usages of his race, made an end to his 
miserable existence (June 4, 1876). 

His nephew, Murad V., was proclaimed in 
his stead ; but proving hopelessly imbecile, 
Murad's brother, Abdul-Hamid H., was raised 
to the Ottoman throne (August 31st). 

General Ignatieff, the Russian ambassador, 
all-powerful during the reign of Abdul- 
Aziz, lost all his influence. The prestige of 
Russia seemed to be gone — that of England 
was in the ascendent. The new sultan, at the 
advice of England, proclaimed a six weeks' 
truce, to give the insurgents time to return to 
their allegiance, which they, however, declined. 
Serbia was now asked what she meant by 
lining her frontier with troops. The Serbian 
prince (Milan), wishing to gain time, gave an 
evasive reply. In the meanwhile the Serbian 
army was largely recruited by Russian sol- 
diers and chiefly officered by Russians, who 
took those commands with the sanction of their 
government. When all was ready (June 26th), 
Prince Nicholas of Montenegro was declared 
Prince of the Herzegovina, and Bosnia pro- 
claimed its union with Serbia. In the war 
that ensued the Turks were almost uniformly 
successful, and were only checked from a vic- 
torious advance on the Serbian capital by the 
peremptory interposition of Russia. By the 
peace of March 2, 1877, Serbia agreed to pre- 
vent invasions of Turkish territory by armed 
bands, to keep the Serbian fortresses in good 
repair, and hoist the Turkish flag on them 
jointly with that of Serbia. 

In the midst of this war (November, 1876) 
Alexander II. of Russia made a public decla- 
ration that if Turkey did not give due guaran- 
tees for the better government of its Christian 
subjects he would force them, either in con- 
cert with his allies or by independent action. 
To preserve the peace, a Conference of the Great 
Powers \Y 'AS held in Constantinople (December, 
1876), which urged on tlie sultan the adoption 
of a plan of internal reform substantially the 
same as that contained in the Andrassy note. 
The sultan, relying on Lord Derby's assurances, 
paid not the least attention to it. The con- 
ference finally drew up a protocol (March 31, 
1877), recording the conclusion at which they 
had arrived about Turkey, which contained a 
vague threat that if the sultan did not put his 
affairs in order something would be done to 
compel him. 

Russia declared, on her own responsibility, 
that if reform should not be carried out 



within a brief period she would herself see 
to it. 

The Turks seemed at first frightened into 
compliance ; but after Lord Derby again had 
assured them that so far as England was con- 
cerned there should be no coercion, they com- 
mitted the immense folly of going to war. The 
Russians crossed successfully the Pruth (April, 
1877) and the Danube, and, notwithstanding 
the heroic defence of Plevna by Osman Pacha, 
they entered (January 21, 1878) Adrianople. 
The Turks now sued for an armistice. But 
the Russians did not stop their march until 
they were before Constantinople. Then (Jan- 
uary 31st) an armistice was concluded, which 
was followed (on March 3d) by the preliminary 
Treaty of San Stefano. The objections to this 
treaty were formulated by Lord Salisbury in an 
elaborate despatch, which opened the negoti- 
ations relative to the submission of the treaty 
to a European congress. Russia was not only 
willing to hold a congress, but declared that 
the questions affecting European interests 
would be debated and settled with the Euro- 
pean powers, but that she reserved to herself 
the liberty of accepting or not accepting the 
result of the discussion. The congress was 
finally opened by Prince Bismarck, at Berlin 
(June 13, 1878). The result of its delibera- 
tions was the Treaty of Berlin, by which the 
affairs of Eastern Europe were regulated as 
follows : 

The sultan lost the tribute of Serbia and 
Rou mania, both of which were declared inde- 
pendent. His old enemy Montenegro, whose 
independence he never had acknowledged, 
obtained an accession of territory and access 
to the sea. Bulgaria was to form a self-gov- 
erning tributary principality, under the suze- 
rainty of the sultan, with a prince chosen by 
the free vote of the population and confirmed 
by the Porte, with the consent of the great 
powers. 

Austria was charged with the occupation 
and administration of Bosnia and the Herze- 
govina. Roumelia was endowed with an auto- 
nomy created and guaranteed by the powers, 
which destroys the sultan's legislative control 
over it and reduces his sovereignty to a mere 
name. Finally, the sultan was obliged to cede 
the Island of Cyprus to England. In Asia — 
Kars, Ardahan, and Batoum were ceded to 
Russia, the district of Khotur to Persia, and 
the sultan pledged himself to carry out the 
requisite reforms in Armenia without loss of 
time, and to protect the inhabitants against 
the Kurds and Circassians. In fact, Turkey in 
Europe has virtually ceased to exist, and faith 
in the permanence of the Asiatic empire has 
been completely destroyed. 



163 



i 



1886 A.D. 



Plate LV. 



T~V| 




THE ENGLISH IN EGYPT. 



Egypt since 1874. — Since 1840, Egypt 
was held by Meheniet Ali as a hereditary 
pachalic. One of his descendants, Ismail 
Pacha, procured for himself, by a judicious 
expenditure of money, more and more privi- 
leges from his overlord. Sultan Abdul-Aziz, 
until he had almost acquired full and inde- 
pendent sovereignty. In 1874 lie rounded 
out his territory toward the south by the an- 
nexation of Darfour, the sultan of which had 
invaded the Egyptian province of Kordofan. 
This annexation of Darfour proved to be a 
great deal more expensive than was expected, 
and brought Egypt on the verge of bankrupt- 
cy, from which it was only saved by the sale 
of the khedive's Suez Canal* shares to England 
(1875). But now broke out a formidable war 
with Abyssinia, which resulted in repeated 
disasters to the Egyptian forces, which finally 
led to a successful insurrection against the 
khedive in Darfour (1877). Under these cir- 
cumstances the financial embarrassment was 
continually increasing. As an only means of 
escape, he gave (1878) into the hands of an 
Anglo-French commission the whole control 
of the financial administration of the country. 
They unanimously recommended the surren- 
der to the state of the khedive's vast private 
property. He was forced to acquiesce in this, 
and on August 22, 1878, the immense private 
possessions of the khedive and of the mem- 
bers of his family became state lands. Nubar 
Pacha was now intrusted with the formation 
of a new cabinet, in which Wilson, an Eng- 
lishman, became Secretary of the Treasury, 
and Blignieres, a Frenchman, President of the 
Board of Public Works. 

This arrangement, which made Egypt virt- 
ually dependent upon England and France, 
soon became repugnant to both the khedive 
and the Egyptian people. The native officers 
were pushed into the background. The most 
lucrative stations were filled by foreigners, 
and the weight of taxation became intolerable. 
The cabinet was overthrown by a military in- 
surrection (February 18, 1879), with the silent 
connivance of the khedive. But now he was 
informed by the western powers that if he did 
not at once abdicate, he should be deposed 
by force. When this was followed by a per- 
emptory command of the sultan to abdicate 
in favor of his son Tewfik, he thought better 
to obey at once and left Egypt. 

* One of the most remarkable engineering works of modern 
times is the Suez Canal, which was completed by the indom- 
itable perseverance of its projector, Ferdinand de Lesseps. 
It is an artificial strait, connecting the Mediterranean and 
the Red Sea from both of which it derives its water-supply. 
Ic reduced the distance between Western Europe and India 
from 11,379 to 7,623 miles, equal to a saving of thirty-six days 
on the voyage. It was formally opened November i6, 1869. 



Many of the privileges formerly accorded to 
the khedive were now revoked by the sultan. 
All treaties had, henceforth, to be submitted 
first to the sultan, without whose sanction no 
new loans could be contracted ; and, although, 
to avoid offence to Mohammedan susceptibil- 
ities, a native cabinet was formed, the actual 
management of the finances was again placed 
in the hands of an Anglo-French commission. 
This commission pronounced Egypt bankrupt, 
and caused the formation of an internation- 
al committee of liquidation, which declared 
Egypt formally bankrupt and appointed Eng- 
land and France as receivers. The govern- 
ment of Egypt, now consisting of the khedive, 
a council, and two controllers, was carried on 
as a financial undertaking, and as such it was 
a decided success. The army of 100,000 men 
left by Ismail was reduced to 9,000, throwing 
91,000 officers and men out of employment. 
This created a great discontent, not only 
among the dismissed soldiers, but even among 
those who were retained. They broke out in 
open revolt September 9, 1881, when Colonel 
Achmet Bey el Araby, surrounded the khe- 
dive's palace and forced him to appoint a cab- 
inet free from foreign control, in which Araby 
himself became Secretary of War. 

To suppress this insurrection the western 
powers sent their fleets to the mouths of the 
Nile. The sight of the foreign vessels goaded 
the Alexandrian mob into fury — the Euro- 
peans were attacked, many killed, and the 
English consul was wounded (June, 1882). In 
retaliation the English fleet bombarded Alex- 
andria (July nth) and reduced it to ruins, 
whereupon Araby withdrew his troops to 
Cairo. Deposed by the khedive, he an- 
nounced he would defend Egypt against the 
infidels, and fortified himself in the delta 
near Tel-el-Kebir. He was, however, easily 
conquered by General Garnet Wolseley, and 
banished by the English Government to Cey- 
lon, The whole of Egypt surrendered (Sep- 
tember, 1882), and Lord Dufferin organized a 
new system of administration. At this time the 
Soudan, for a long while impatient of Egyp- 
tian rule, thought the time had come to free 
itself. The Mahdi, who headed the revolt, 
succeeded in cutting to pieces an English 
force which was sent against him near El 
Obeid (November 3-5, 1885). Its commander, 
Hicks Pacha, was slain, and the Mahdi went 
unmolested northward to Kartoom, the capi- 
tal of the Soudan, at the confluence of the 
White and Blue Nile. In order to save that 
city, where there were many Europeans, to 
pacify the tribes, and to provide for the deliv- 
erance of the garrisons. General Gordon was 
sent by the English Government to this town. 



1G4 



1886 A.D. 



Plate LVII. 






i : 




Servoss i Co.. Eogr's »nd Pr's, JJ. Y. 



DIVISION OF AFRICA. 



DIVISION OF AFRICA AMONG THE 
EUROPEAN POWERS. 

As early as 1796, England, as a fruit of war 
with Holland, became possessed of a large ter- 
ritory in South Africa which was called Cape 
Colony. It was restored to the Dutch in 1803, 
but again occupied by the British three years 
later, and finally ceded to Great Britain in 
1 8 14. The total area is nearly 300,000 square 
miles and the population about 2,000,000. It 
has extremely rich copper mines and valua- 
ble coal deposits ; but it is chiefly noted for its 
wonderful diamond mines discovered at Kim- 
berley in 1867, which have since yielded about 
^100,000,000. Northwest of Cape Colony and 
adjoining, lies the British colony of Natal with 
an area of over 35,000 square miles and a 
population of about 1,000,000. The coal fields 
of the colony are extensive and important, and 
large forests of valuable timber abound. . Be- 
sides these, its principal possessions, Great 
Britain holds much other territory in Central 
and East Africa, aggregating with Cape Colony 
and Natal about 2,500,000 square miles, and a 
population, chiefly native, of course, of some 
40,000,000. Egypt and the Egyptian Sou- 
dan are nominally under the suzerainty of 
Turkey, but are really controlled by Great 
Britain, and will doubtless ere long be incor- 
porated into the British Empire. The full au- 
thority of England, which was largely lost by 
the successful revolt of the Mahdi, 1882-85, 
was resumed by the victories of General Kitch- 
ener in 1898. 

France has large territory in North, Central 
and West Africa — Algeria, The Guinea Coast, 
the Congo Region, Madagascar and other isl- 
ands. Germany's possessions are somewhat 
smaller, but still large — scarcely less than 
1,000,000 square miles and 10,000,000 inhabi- 
tants, in East and Southwest Africa. Italy, 
Portugal, Spain and Turkey also have part in 
the division of Africa. The Congo Free State 
is under the sovereignty of the King of the 
Belgians, 

South African War. — In South Africa 
are two Republics — The Orange Free State 
and the Transvaal ('' South African Republic"). 
The former is the older of the two organiza- 
tions, having been founded originally by Boers 
who left Cape Colony in 1836. The latter, ly- 
ing farther to the north, is much larger and 
stronger, having within its limits the extremely 
rich gold mines of Johannesburg, the most pro- 



ductive in the world. This Republic also was 
settled by the Dutch w^ho forsook English 
rule in South Africa. The relations between 
England and the Transvaal, always strained, 
have twice become hostile and developed into 
war — the first time in 1881, when the conflict 
ended with the advantage on the side of the 
Transvaal. Again in 1899, the complaints and 
demands of Great Britain on behalf of her 
citizens who were residents of the Trans- 
vaal brought on a war of great magnitude and 
severity. The Orange Free State, as bound by 
treaty, joined arms with her sister republic. 

During the first few months the English met 
with serious reverses. At the close of the 
year (1899) Field Marshal Lord Roberts was 
put in command of military operations, with 
Lord Kitchener as chief of staff, and a rein- 
forcement of 100,000 men. In March, 1900, 
Bloemfontein, capital of the Orange Free State, 
surrendered, and in June, Pretoria, capital of 
the Transvaal, fell into the hands of the Brit- 
ish, The annexation of both republics to the 
British Empire was proclaimed by Lord Rob- 
erts. But the Boers were still unconquered. 
Though unable any longer to put an army 
in the field, they carried on a fierce guerilla 
war. At the end of the year (1900) Lord Rob- 
erts returned to England, where he was re- 
ceived with royal honors, and Lord Kitchener 
was placed at the head of the British forces 
in South Africa. Guerilla fighting continued 
throughout the year 1901, the Boers hoping 
to wear out the patience of the English peo- 
ple. The war ended May 31, 1902, when 
terms of surrender were signed by the Boer 
representatives. 

END OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 

January 22, 1901, Queen Victoria died at 
Osborne. Her reign had lasted more than 
sixty-two years. Some of its important events 
were the Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846), the 
Crimean War (1854-56), the Disestablishment 
of the Irish Church (1869), the Opening of the 
Suez Canal (1869), the Proclamation of Vic- 
toria as Empress of India (1877), and the 
Queen's Jubilees (1887 and 1897). 

Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, succeeded 
to the throne on the death of his mother, and 
January 24, was proclaimed King Edward VII. 
of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of 
India. 



166 



i 



Plate LVIIb. 







AMERICAN HISTORY. 



THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 

VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 



Northmen, Norsemen, Scandinavians are 
some of the names applied to the early inhab- 
itants of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (see 
page 66). For the first eight centuries of our 
era, they are hidden from our view in their re- 
mote Northern home : but with the opening of 
the ninth century their piratical crafts are to 
be seen creeping along the Western and South- 
ern coasts of Europe, even venturing to cross 
the Atlantic and settling in Iceland. These 
first Scandinavian colonists were men fleeing 
from Harold Haarfager (the Beautiful-haired)^ 
King of Norway, who, in the battle of Hafurs- 
fiord (see Plate XXVIIL), in 872, forced the 
rebellious Jarls (nobles) either to submit to his 
power or leave their native land as outlaws. 

Then it was that some of the noblest Norwe- 
gians left their native land forever, and set sail 
in search of new homes. They settled in Ice- 
land about 874. Soon the population ex- 
ceeded 50,000 souls. 

The growth of the new community in wealth 
and culture was surprisingly rapid, and in the 
twelfth century there was a flourishing litera- 
ture. Especial attention was paid to history. 
From various Icelandic chronicles we learn that 
in 876 one of the settlers named Gunnbjorn, 
was driven by foul weather to some point on 
the coast of Greenland, where he and his crew 
contrived to pass the winter. In 983 Eric the 
Red, a Norwegian outlaw, determined to search 
for the land Gunnbjorn had discovered. In 
the next three years he and his bold vi- 
kings (sons of the fiord) explored the coasts of 
Greenland. At length they found a suitable 
place for a home at the head of the Igaliko 
fiord, not far from the site of the modern Ju- 
lianeshaab. In contrast with most of its bleak 
surroundings the place might well be called 
Greenland, and so Eric named it. The name 
thus given to this chosen spot has gradually 
been extended to the whole of the vast conti- 
nental region north of Davis Strait, for, by far 
the greater part of which it is a flagrant viis- 
jionter. A settlement was established at the 
head of Igaliko fiord, which was called Brat- 
tahlid. From this place Leif, the famous son 
of Eric the Red, sailed (about 1000 a.d.) to 
the southward. They finally came upon a 



barren coast, covered with big flat stones. 
They called it accordingly Helluland {Slate- 
land). This must have been either Labrador 
or Newfoundland. Farther south they came 
upon a wooded country, which ,they called 
Markland ( Woodland), and was, most probably, 
our Nova Scotia. Going still south they 
reached, within three days, a coast abounding 
in wild grapes. 

Leif, accordingly, called the country Vin- 
land. This was the farthest point south 
reached by them. It must have been some- 
where on the coast of Northern Massachusetts. 
They wintered here, and in the spring of 100 1 
Leif returned to Greenland with a cargo of 
timber. When once the Northmen had found 
their way to Vinland, it seems marvellous that 
such active sailors could have avoided re- 
peated visits and an eventual settlement upon 
the continent of North America. 

But the discovery had no consequences. 
Vinland was discovered huX. never colonized. 

So far as existing Icelandic records inform 
us, there was no voyage to Vinland after 11 21. 

The latest pre-Columbian voyage, mentioned 
as having occurred in the Northern seas, was 
that of the Polish pilot John Szkolny, who, in 
the service of King Christian I., of Denmark 
{see page 12^), is said to have sailed. to Green- 
land in 1476, and to have touched upon the 
Coast of Labrador. 

These pre-Columbian voyages were quite 
barren of results of liistoric importance. In 
point of colonization they produced two ill- 
fated settlements on the Greenland coast, and 
nothing more. The discovery of America by 
Leif, son of Eric the Red, cannot diminish the 
claims of Columbus. 

The wandering Scandinavians had reachd 
the shores of America first on the northern 
shore of Massachusetts, which they had given 
the name of Vinland. 

But the memory of these voyages seems to- 
tally to have passed away. 

Never to be forgotten and brimful of results 
were the voyages of Christopher Columbus.* 



* Italian, Christoforo Colombo; Spanish, Oa.x\%\o\i2\ 
Colon ; Latin^ Christophorus Columbus. (See page log.) 



167 



1492—1620 A. D. 



PLATE LVIII. 




StruOieis, Servoss Si Co., EnE.r'si.ana Pr's, N.Y, 



ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION. 



These were four in all, covering the years 
from 1492 to 1504. His first voyage, in view 
of its far-reaching consequences, was the most 
important in the history of the world. Re- 
turning to Spain the next year he was received 
with almost royal honors, and was sent back 
across the Atlantic with all that he wanted 
of men, vessels, and supplies. His third and 
fourth voyages began in 1498 and 1502, and it 
was during the former that he got his only 
glimpse of the mainland of the New World. 
He saw South America at the mouth of the 
Orinoco River. He thought it another island, 
like those he had previously discovered, all of 
which he supposed were off the east coast 



ATTEMPTS 



AT COLONIZATION 
LATIN RACES. 



BY THE 



First Attempts.— The Portuguese were 
the first among the European nations who be- 
came acquainted with the eastern coast of the 
present United States. Since the very begin- 
ning of the sixteenth century they had sailed 
along the whole coast from Florida to Cape 
Cod, and had carefully mapped it out. But 
the rivalry of Spain and Portugal led to se- 
crecy regarding all discoveries. Discarding 
the rough shores themselves, they were never- 
theless unwilling to let others reap the fruit 
of their discoveries. 

About the same time that the Portuguese 
explored the coast from south to north, John 
Cabot explored it from north to south. He 
was a Venetian captain, living in England, 
who sailed (1497) out of Bristol in search of a 
northwest passage to India. He came upon 
the coast of North America near Cape Breton, 
and followed it south and westward for 900 
miles. But the English paid little heed to his 
discoveries. 

Hardy fishermen from France were the next 
to touch our coast. The fishing-grounds near 
Europe becoming gradually exhausted, they 
ventured each year farther westward until at 
last they came to the coasts of Newfoundland 
and Nova Scotia ; but they troubled them- 
selves very little about the land near by. A 
few captains explored the coast a little. Cape 
Breton owes its name to the fishermen of Brit- 
tany. John Denys is said to have explored 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence as early as 1506. 

A little later (15 12) the Spanish governor of 
Porto Rico, Ponce de Leon, touched our coast. 
It happened to be Easter Sunday, Fasciia Flor- 
ida {i.e., Flowery Easter), and so he named the 
country Florida. 

The French in the North. — Twelve years 
later (1524), Verrazano, an Italian sailor, was 
sent out by Francis I. of France. He reached 
our coast near the present Cape Fear, and, sail- 



of Asia. As that coast was called the Indies, 
and the new islands had been reached by sail- 
ing westward, they came to be called the West 
Indies, and their inhabitants Indians. On his 
fourth and last voyage Columbus explored the 
shores of Honduras and the Isthmus of Pana- 
ma in search of a strait leading to the Indian 
Ocean. Of course he did not find it, and re- 
turned to Spain, where he died in 1506, poor \ 
and broken hearted. I 

Of the greatness of his discovery Columbus 
never knew. It never entered his mind that he 
had found a new world. He died firm in the be- 
lief that he had done only what he set out to 
do — discover a direct westward route to Asia. 



ing northward, visited, probably, the bay of 
New York and Narragansett Bay. The ac- 
count he gave of the country made such an 
impression on Francis \. that ten years later 
(1534) he sent two ships to America, under the 
command of Jacques Cartier, who on his first 
voyage cruised about the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
to which he gave that name. In his second 
voyage (1535) he went up the river St. Law- 
rence as far as the rapids. No lasting settle- 
ment was made. Still, the French, on account 
of these discoveries, regarded the region of 
the St. Lawrence as belonging to them. 

The Spaniards in the South. — While the 
French were ineffectually striving to plant 
colonies along the St. Lawrence in the north, 
the Spaniards were doing the same in the 
south in Florida. Narvaez, having landed, in 
1528, with 300 men at Tampa Bay, marched 
to St. Mark's Bay, where, disgusted with the 
country, they built boats and pushed out into 
the gulf. Being shipwrecked, they wandered 
about for more than six years. Four finally 
reached the Pacific coast, where they fell in 
with Spaniards and were cared for. Unde- 
terred by the fate of Narvaez, eleven years 
later (1539) Hernando de Soto landed at Tam- 
pa Bay and set out on the track of Narvaez. 
He discovered (1541) the Mississippi, which 
he crossed near the site of the present city of 
Memphis. He soon afterward died, and his 
body was sunk in the Father of Waters. His 
companions, descending the river, reached the 
Gulf of Mexico and coasted westward along the 
shores of Texas. On September 10, 1543, the 
survivors reached Tampico Bay. {See Plate 
LIX.) After this the work of founding colonies 
in North America languished, andin 1561 Philip 
II. announced that there would be no further 
attempts to colonize that country. As no gold 
was to be found, the chief reason for occupy- 
ing Florida was to keep out the French, and 
thanks to the French civil wars there seemed to 
be no danger of their coming for the present. 



168 



ATTEMPT AT COLONIZATION. 



THE FOUNDATION OF NEW FRANCE. 

Just about this time, and in consequence of 
the civil war, Frenchmen did come to Florida. 
CoLiGNY (see page 122) conceived the plan of 



taken possession of its coasts under the name 
of New France. He explored the lower part 
of the river St. Lawrence, and found an Iro- 
quois town, named Hockelaga, on an eminence, 
which he called Montreal. 



among the first settlers of the French colony. 
She purchased their rights and having got the 



founding a Huguenot colony in America. j Samuel de Champlain du Brouage, after 

Coligny's attempt was made upon the coast long and perilous voyages, enlisted in the 
of Florida, under the lead of Jean Ribaut, company which de Monts had formed for the 
who, on May day, 1562, reached the St. John's 1 trade in furs on the northern coast of Amer- 
River, whence he coasted northward as far as ica. Appointed viceroy of Acadia, de Monts 
the spot to which he gave the name of Port set sail on April 7, 1604. For many years he 
Royal. Here they built a small fortress called ; and his comrades struggled against the natural 
Fort Charles (see Plate LVIH.), in honor of; difficulties of their enterprise, 
the young king Charles IX. In the meanwhile religious zeal had been re- 

During three years, the French maintained viving in France. Missionary ardor animated 
themselves in Florida, enlarged from time to the powerful Society of Jesus especially. At 
time by new emigrants. j their instigation a pious woman, the marchion- 

In 1565 the long-dreaded Spanish expedition I ess of Guercheville, profited by the distress 
landed. 

Pedro Menendez de Aviles had pledged 
himself to conquer for Spain this territory. ! king to cede to her the sovereignty of New 

The struggle lasted but a few days, and Me-! France, fro?n the St. Lawrence to Florida, she 
nendez, as conqueror, took possession of the I dedicated all her personal fortune to a mission 
ruined forts. ^'- Are you Catholics or Lutherajis .?" \ among the American Indians. Besides the ad- 
he demanded of his prisoners. ^'' We all ^^- j venturers, gentlemen, and traders, there set out 
lotig to the reformed faith^' answered Ribaut. | a large number of Jesuits. Champlain, who 
All were put to death. Above the heap of accompanied them, became, in 1606, the first 
corpses Menendez placed the inscription, I governor of the town of Quebec. Champlain 
'' NOT AS FRENCHMEN BUT AS HER-\6:\qA at Quebec, on Christmas Day, 1635, after 
ETICS.'* Three years later, on this self-same twenty-seven years' efforts and sufferings in the 
spot, lay the bodies of the Spanish garrison. | service of the nascent colony. Bold and enter- 
Dominic de Gourgues, who had sworn to | prising, endowed with indomitable persever- 
avenge the wrongs of France, put to sea with | ance and rare practical faculties, he had proved 
three small vessels equipped at his own ex- himself an intrepid negotiator with the savage 
pense. ' tribes, and a wise and patient administrator. 

The Spaniards had established their princi- ; New France was founded, in spit@ of the 
pal settlement at some distance from the first sufferings of the early colonists, thanks to their 
landing place, and had named it St. Augus- | courage, their fervent enthusiasm, and the sup- 
tine. Menendez, in founding it in 1565, had j port afforded them by the religious zeal of 
built the first town within the bounds of the United^ their friends in Europe. 

States. De Gourgues attacked unexpectedly! The Jesuit fathers every day extended their 
Fort San Mateo; all were killed or taken ; I explorations, sharing, with the illustrious La 
they were hanged on the same trees which I Salle, the glory of the great discoveries of the 
had but lately served for the execution of the \ West. Champlain had before this dreamed of 
French. *' THIS I DO NOT AS TO SPAN- ' and sought for a passage across the continent, 
lARDS, BUT AS TO ry^^/rO^^", I leading \o the Southern seas and permitting 
THIEVES, AND MURDERERS;' was the of commerce with India and Japan, 
inscription placed by de Gourgues above their t La Salle discovered Ohio and Illinois, nav- 
heads. i igated the great lakes, crossed the Mississippi, 

When he again put to sea there remained and pushed on as far as Texas. After taking 
not one stone upon another of San Mateo, possession of Louisiana in the name of Louis 
France was avenged, but Florida remained in XIV., abandoned by the majority of his com- 
the hands of Spain. The French adventurers I panions, and thwarted by his enemies and ri- 
went carrying to the north their ardent hopes \ vals, he fell (1687) beneath the blows of a few 
and their indomitable courage. mutineers. He left the field open after him to 

For a long while expeditions and attempts the innumerable travellers of every nation and 
at French colonization had been directed every language, who were one day to leave 
toward Canada; James Cartier (1535) had their mark on those measureless tracts. 

169 



I 



1492—1620 A.D. 



Plate LIX. 




Strulliers, Sarwii St Co., Eiigr's anJ I'l's, N.Y. 



ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATIOIS. 



ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION BY THE 
TEUTONIC RACES. 

The First English Settlements. — In 1584 
the English made their first attempt to colo- 
nize the New World. Walter Raleigh landed 
on Roanoke Island, in Pamlico Sound (North 
Carolina). The country was called, after the 
maiden queen Elizabeth, Virginia. This name 
was then applied to all the country lying be- 
tween the French dominion of Canada and 
the Spanish dominion of Florida. Twice the 
English attempted to plant a colony (1585 and 
1587), and twice they failed. The French suc- 
ceeded better in establishing a lasting colony 
on the St. Lawrence. The second settlement, 
which still exists, on the eastern coast, was 
Quebec, founded in 1608 by Samuel de Cham- 
plain. 

Six years before this, Bartholomew Gosnold 
discovered a cape to which he gave the name 
of Cape Cod, which it has ever since borne. 
Pleased with the land he had discovered, he 
persuaded a number of men to form the Vir- 
ginia Company, which ultimately received the 
right to -hold all the land from Cape Fear to 
the St. Croix River. This territory was di- 
vided into two districts. The northern part 
was controlled by the Plymouth Company ; 
the southern part by the London Company. 
By this London Company was made the first 
permafient settle ?nent by Englislunen in A merica. 

They explored the shores of a river which 
they named the James, after the then king of 
England — James I. They landed (May 13, 
1607) on a low peninsula, and called tiie place 
Jamestown. They had named the two capes 
at the entrance of the bay Cape Henry and 
Cape Charles, after the king's sons. James- 
town existed for nearly seventy years, when it 
was burned in Bacon's rebellion (1676). 

The Early Colonies. — From this time the 
European democracy began to turn their at- 
tention toward emigration, in the hope that 
on the free soil of America they might raise 
the edifice of a new state and a new church 
in their own simple style. 

Dutch, Swedes, and Englishmen began to 
emigrate to the shores which w-ere included 
in the grant of the Virginia Company. They 
were for the most part Protestants, and of the 
strictest morality. The greater number were 
Puritans and Quakers. The emigrants had 
too much of the reserved and exclusive spirit 
of Protestants to form connection with the 
Indians, whom they regarded as scarcely hu- 
man ; but they were also conscientious enough 
to purchase the land from the natives. They 
followed their Teutonic bent to keep them- 
selves apart in small and varied communities. 
Thus a Dutch town, with a municipality, was 



formed (1615), in New Amsterdafn ; a theocracy, 
after the pattern of Geneva, in Massachusetts 
(1620) ; in Virginia (1624), an English province 
with high-church institutions ; in Mary/and 
(1632), a feudal principality ; in Carolana [iG^t,), 
a government consisting of eight lordships, 
with a great landed aristocracy ; in Connecticut 
(1633), a pure democracy ; and in Pennsylvania., 
a cosmopolitan Quaker republic. 

New England. — The settlements between 
the Kennebec and the Connecticut Rivers 
were soon known as New England. By the 
end of the seventeenth century they had ar- 
ranged themselves into four separate colonies. 
They were : 

I. Massachusetts^ formed, in 1629, by the 
union of Massachusetts and Plymouth, and, 
since 1652, with its northern dependency of 
Maine (which became a separate State in 
1820). 

II. Rhode Island, formed, in 1644, by the 
union of Rhode Island and Providence. 

III. Connecticut, formed by the union of 
Connecticut and New Haven (1665). 

IV. New Hampshire, annexed, in 1677, by 
Massachusetts ; but since 1680 a separate col- 
ony. 

These four New England States formed a 
distinct geographical group, with a marked 
political and religious character of their own. 

Virginia and its Neighbors. — Meanwhile, 
at some distance to the south, around Virginia 
as their centre, grew up another group of 
colonies, with a history and character in many 
ways unlike those of New England. To the 
south of Virginia was, since 1653, the colony 
of Carolana, reaching from the Atlantic to 
New Mexico. In 1729 it was divided into 
North Carolina and South Carolina. To the 
north of Virginia was Maryland (1639). 

New Netherlands. — But between these 
two groups of English colonies, in the strictest 
sense, lay a region in which English settlement 
took the form of conquest from another Euro- 
pean power. Earlier (1613) than any English 
settlement, except Virginia, the great colony 
of the United Provinces had arisen on Long Isl- 
and and the neighboring mainland. It bore 
the name of New Netherlands, with its capi- 
tal of New Amsterdam. 

New Sweden. — To the south, on the 
shores of Delaware Bay, the other great power 
of the seventeenth century founded the colony 
of New Sweden (1638), 

The English Conquest. — Three European 
nations, closely allied in race, speech, and 
creed, were thus for a while side by side on 
the eastern coasts of America. But the three 
j settlements were fated to merge together, and 
that by force of arms. A local war, in ^655, 
70 



1606—1620 A.D. 



Plate LX. 



KIX(t JAMES' PATENT OF 

DIVIDING VIRGINIA INTO TWO PARTS. 
The Plynwuth Company . 
The London Company.. 




KEORGANIZATION OF THE PLYMOLTH COMPANY 
IN 1620, 

AS THE COUNCIL OF PLYMOUTH FOR NEW ENGLAND. 



1625-1733 A.D. 



Plate LXI. 



VAEIOUS ENGLISH GRANTS. 

1625-1649 A.D. 




& Cv.. Ei.gr'sa.iJ Pi's, N.Y. 



EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLONIES. 



added Ne7V Swede?! to the Neiv Netherlands ; a 
war between England and the United Prov- 
inces, in 1664, gave the Neiu Netherlands to 
England. Ne7v Amsterdam became New York 
(August 27, 1664), and gave its name to the 
colony which was to become the greatest State 
of the Union. 

The Later Colonies. — Meanwhile, the gap 
which was still left began to be filled up by 
other English settlements. East and West 
Jersey began as two distinct colonies (1676), 
which were, in 1680, united into one. The 
great colony of Pennsylvania next arose (1682), 
from which the small one of Delaware was 
parted off in 1703. 

Fifty years after the work of the benevolent 
Penn came the work of the no less benevo- 
lent Oglethorpe, who, pitying those who were 
oppressed by the harsh laws against debtors, 
founded the thirteenth and last of the origi- 
nal colonies, Georgia^ as an asylum for poor 
debtors, where they could begin life anew 

(1733)- 

Early Development of the Colonies. — 

In their general history these States followed 
the star of England. Unobserved in the be- 
ginning, they formed their constitutions freely, 
according to the demands of the times. Dur- 
ing the existence of the English Republic 
(1650-1660) the spirit of democracy planted it- 
self securely ; under the restoration it suffered 
mucii injury and danger in its charters, lib- 
erties, self-government, and property. After 
1688 each separate State returned to its pre- 
vious institutions. Democracy was, after a 
long struggle, by that time firmly established. 
The same spirit of democracy which grew so 
rapidlv in the State entered also into the af- 
fairs of the Church, where, however, it moved 
more slowly and on a more troubled way. In 
some few States, such as Carolina, New Nether- 



lands, and Maryland under the philanthropic 
Lord Baltimore, all religions were tolerated 
from the beginning, although they were not 
granted equal privileges. In Virginia, con- 
formity w^as required to the views of the high- 
church party ; but even among the Puritans 
of Massachusetts Calvinistic intolerance ex- 
cluded every other creed from the State, and 
persecuted Anabaptists and Quakers by exile 
and death. 

When Roger Williams urged an entire lib- 
erty of conscience in Massachusetts, and a 
separation of the Church from all matters ap- 
pertaining to the State, he was obliged to fly 
from the country. Hereupon he founded, in 
1636, a small, new society in Rhode Island, 
upon the principles of entire liberty of con- 
science and the uncontrolled power of the 
majority in secular concerns, which became 
also the constitution of Connecticut. 

French and English. — The French set- 
tlers in North America surrounded the Eng- 
lish colonies of the coast both in the rear and 
on either side ; they instigated the Indians to 
attack them, and by a more rapid increase of 
their settlements they hoped, in some future 
time, easily to advance upon the coast ; but 
this aim of gaining an advantage over the 
English colonies by their geographical position 
was defeated by the indifference and incapac- 
ity for colonization of the French themselves. 
The first half-century of the French settlement 
in Louisiana (1700-1750) did not exhibit one- 
tenth part of the population and of the results 
which were produced in that time in New 
England. This fact only so much the more 
stirred up the jealousy of France toward Eng- 
land, w^hich already derived but too much 
nourishment in their religious differences, in 
their diverse origin, and in the geographical 
I proximity of the two countries. 



THE ANGLO-FRENCH 



STRUGGLE FOR THE 
AMERICA. 



SUPREMACY IN NORTH 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES DURING THE 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

W^ealth and Education. — During the 
eighteenth century the colonies were grow- 
ing fast in numbers and in wealth. Before 
the middle of the century their population 
amounted to nearly a million and a half, one- 
fifth of which were negroes. 

As yet the southern colonies were the more 
productive. While Virginia and Maryland 
boasted of their tobaccos, and the Carolinas 



and Georgia of their rice and indigo, the 
northern colonies were restricted to their 
whale and cod fisheries, their corn crops, and 
their timber trade. 

New England, the poorest of all, stood, 
however, far ahead of all colonies, either 
north or south, in education ; for the settle- 
ment of the Puritans had been followed at 
once by the establishment of a system of local 
schools. Every townships it was enacted, after 
the Lord hath increased them to the number of 



171 



1643 A.D. 



1655 A.D. Plate LXII 




THE ANGLO-FRENCH STRUGGLE. 



fifty householders^ shall appoint one to teach all 
children to read and write ; and when any town 
shall increase to the number of a hundred families, 
they shall set up a grammar school. The result 
of tliis was that in the middle of the eighteenth 
century New England was the one part of the 
world where every man and woman was able 
to read and write. 

Government. — In the main features of their 
outer organization the whole of the colonies 
stood fairly as one. There was the same outer 
diversity, and the same real unity in the politi- 
cal tendency and organization of the States. 
Whether the spirit of the colony was demo- 
cratic, moderate, or oligarchical, its form of 
government was pretty much the same. The 
original rights of the proprietor, or grantee, 
of the earliest settlement had in all cases, save 
in those of Pennsylvania and Maryland, either 
ceased to exist or fallen into desuetude. 

The government of each colony lay in a 
House of Assembly elected by the people at 
large, with a Council and a Governor. The 
governor was generally appointed by the 
crown, but in Connecticut and Rhode Island 
chosen by the colonists. With the appoint- 
ment of these governors all administrative 
interference, on the part of England, practi- 
cally ended. The assemblies alone exercised 
the right of internal taxation, and they exer- 
cised it sparingly. The colonies contributed 
to England's resources not by taxation, but by 
the monopoly of her trade. It was from Eng- 
land that they might import, to England alone 
that they might send their exports. But this 
restriction of trade was more than compen- 
sated by the commercial privileges which they 
enjoyed as British subjects. 

THE ANGLO-FRENCH STRUGGLE. 

The French Pretensions. — As yet, there- 
fore, there was nothing to break the good-will 
which the colonists felt toward the mother 
country, while the danger of French aggres- 
sion drew them closely to it; for, populous 
as they had become, the English settlements 
still lay mainly along the seaboard of the At- 
lantic. It was not till the Peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, in 1748, that the pretensions of 
France drew the eyes of the colonists to the 
interior of the continent. Planted firmly in 
Louisiana and Canada, France openly claimed 
the whole country west of the Alleghanies as 
its own, and its governors now ordered all 
English settlers or merchants to be driven 
from the valleys of the Ohio or Mississippi. 
The English, of course, retaliated. The ori- 
ginal French settlers were driven from Aca- 
dia, and an English colony was planted there 



whose settlement of Halifax strn bears the 
name of its founder (Lord Halifax). 

The English force their Way into the 
Ohio Valley. — The Ohio Company w^s formed 
in 1748, and its agents made their way to the 
valleys of that river and the Kentucky, while 
envoys from Virginia and Pennsylvania drew 
closer the alliance between their colonies and 
the Indian tribes across the mountains. Tiie 
French were not slow in accepting the chal- 
lenge ; and planted, in defiance. Fort Duquesne, 
on the fork of the Ohio (1754). 

The Marquis of Montcalm, who was now 
governor of Canada, fearlessly carried out the 
plans of annexation. The three forts of Du- 
quesne, Niagara, and Ticonderoga were linked 
together by a chain of lesser forts, which cut 
off the English colonists from all access to the 
west. The bulk of the Indians from Canada 
to the Mississippi had been attached to the 
cause of France ; and the value of their aid 
was shown in 1755, when General Braddock 
marched on Fort Duquesne. The force was 
utterly routed, and he himself slain. 

But three years later a force from Phila- 
delphia and Virginia, guided and inspired by 
the courage of George Washington, finally 
subdued Fort Duquesne (November 25, 1758). 
The name of Pittsburg, which was given to 
their new conquest, still commemorates the 
enthusiasm of the colonists for the great minis- 
ter who opened to them the west. He had 
won the sympathies of the colonists by an 
order which gave their provincial officers 
equal rank with the royal officers in the 
field. They raised, at Pitt's call, 20,000 men, 
and taxed themselves heavily for their sup- 
port. 

The Conquest of Canada. — Three expe- 
ditions were simultaneously directed against 
the French line — one to the Ohio Valley, one 
against Ticonderoga, while a third sailed to 
the mouth of the St. Lawrence and reduced 
the whole province of Cape Breton. In 1759 
Ticonderoga and Niagara were taken. The 
capture of the three forts was the close of the 
French effort to bar the advance of the colo- 
nists to the valley of the Mississippi, and to 
place in other than English hands the desti- 
nies of North America. 

The capture of Quebec by Wolfe (1759), 
and of Montreal by Amherst (1760), put, for 
always, an end to the dream of a French em- 
pire in America. 

By the Peace of Paris (February 10, 1763) 
France gave up Canada, Nova Scotia, and 
Louisiana as far as the Mississippi, while they 
resigned the rest of that province to Spain in 
compensation for its surrender of Florida to 
the British crown. 



J 



172 



1755—1763 A.D. 



Plate LXIII. 




NEIGHBORHOOD OF QUEBEC. 



THE COLXTRY 
EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI 

DURING THE 

FRENCH-INDIAN WAR. 

1755—1763. 



THE FOUNDATION OF THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 



BEFORE THE APPEAL TO ARMS. 

The Colonies and the English Debt. — 

After the conclusion of the Peace of Paris, in 
1763, the English debt stood at $700,000,000. 
Provision had to be made to pay the interest 
on it, and as it had been partly incurred in the 
defence of the American colonies, it was the 
general opinion of Englishmen that the col- 
onies should contribute their just share toward 
the relief of the burdens left by the war. For 
these colonies were looked upon as being as 
completely English soil as England itself, and 
in their relation to the Government there was 
no difference between an Englishman of Mas- 
sachusetts and an Englishman of Kent. No 
bounds could be fixed for the supremacy of 
ike King in Parliament over every subject of the 
Crown, and the colonist of America was as 
absolutely a subject as the ordinary English- 
man. What the colonists urged against this 
was, that they were, no doubt, Englishmen, 
but Englishmen who were parted from Eng- 
land by 3,000 miles of ocean. They could 
not, if they would, share the common political 
life of men at home ; nature had imposed on 
them their own political life. No act of Par- 
liament could annihilate the Atlantic. 

No Taxation -without Representation. — 
Taxation and representation went hand in 
hand. America had no representatives in 
Parliament. The representatives of the col- 
onies met in their own colonial assemblies, and 
they were quite willing to grant supplies to 
the mother country. Massachusetts marked 
accurately the position she took : " The power 
of taxing is the grand banner of British liberty. 
If that is once broken down, all is lost.'' 

This distinction was at once accepted by the 
assembly of every colony, and it was with 
their protest and offer that they despatched 
Benjamin Franklin, astheir agent, to England, 
to announce that the colonists were willing to 
tax themselves for the general defence. Un- 
luckily, Franklin could give no assurance as 
to a union of the colonies for the purpose of 
such taxation, and without such an assurance 
the Government had no mind to change its 
plans. 

The Stamp Act. — In February, 1765, there- 
fore. Parliament passed the Stamp Act, a tax 
on all legal documents issued within the col- 



onies. Vigorously as he had struggled against 
the act, Franklin saw no other course for the 
colonies but that of submission. But submis- 
sion was the very last thing they dreamed of. 
Everywhere through New England riots broke 
out on the news of the arrival of the stamped 
paper, and the frightened collectors resigned 
their posts. 

The Assembly of Virginia was the first to 
formally deny the right of the British Parlia- 
ment to meddle w^ith internal taxation, and to 
demand the repeal of the act. Massachusetts 
not only adopted the denial and the demand 
as its own, but proposed a congress of dele- 
gates from all the colonial assemblies to pro- 
vide for common and united action, and in 
October, 1765, this congress met in New York. 
Nine colonies took part in it. For the first 
time, the whole country had a common cause, 
and there was need that the people should 
consult together. This congress was the be- 
ginning of the Union. " There ought to be no 
New England man, no New Yorker, known on this 
continent,'' said one of its members, ^^ but all of 
us Americans." This congress dem.anded the 
repeal of the Stamp Act, and the people every- 
where showed their determination to support 
this demand. The Stamp Act was repealed 
March, 1766, for the English Government saw 
that it was impossible to enforce it. 

The Boston Tea-party. — This withdrawal 
was accompanied, however, with an offensive 
declaration of the supreme rights of the mother 
country over her colonies. George III. re- 
gretted this repeal deeply: "All men feel," 
the king wrote, " that this fatal compliance 
has increased the pretensions of the Ameri- 
cans to absolute independence." In America, 
the news of the repeal had been received with 
universal joy, and taken as a close of the strife. 
On both sides, however, there remained a 
pride and irritability which only wise handling 
could have allayed. But it became soon clear 
that wise handling was not to be expected of 
the English Government. A renewed attempt 
was made in 1767 to raise duties in America 
on tea, paper, painters' colors, and glass. 
They were all abandoned, however, in 1770, 
except the duty on tea. 

When, in 1773, permission was given to the 
East India Company to export their surplusj 
stock to America, these cargoes were destroyed , 



173 



1763-1783 A.D. 



Plate LXIV. 




United Slates 
English j'os. 
Spanish pos. 
Oregfrn country 



Struthors. 3ervua« i Cu., Ei.gr's auj I'r's, N.V. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



in Boston Harbor (December i8th). The quar- 
rel was now becoming serious and compli- 
cated. 

First Continental Congress. — In the 
spring of 1774, acts were passed by the 
British Parliament for suppressing the Port 
of Boston, for abolishing the charter and 
democratic government of Massachusetts, and 
for authorizing the governors of colonies to 
send home persons guilty of rebellion, to be 
tried by the Court of King's Bench. General 
Gage was sent to Boston to enforce these 
measures ; but the troops at his disposal were 
not adequate to support such vigorous pro- 
ceedings. The colonies agreed to abstain from 
using British merchandise till Massachusetts 
should be restored to its privileges ; while a 
general congress, which met at Philadelphia 
(December, 1774), resolved to repel force by 
force. They drew up addresses to the people 
of Great Britain, as well as to the colonies ; 
and also a petition to the king, in which they 
professed their loyalty. But, in spite of Lord 
Chatham's eloquent warnings, the English 
Government persisted in its course. 

THE APPEAL TO ARMS. 

First Hostilities. — In February, 1775, bills 
were brought in to restrain the commerce of 
the New England provinces, and to exclude 
them from the Newfoundland fisheries. These 
measures were shortly followed by a collision 
between the colonial militia and the royal 
troops, which inaugurated the war which led 
to independence. General Gage, having dis- 
persed some militia at Lexington (April 19, 
1775), the farmers assembled on all sides, at- 
tacked the king's troops at Concord Bridge, 
and drove them back to the suburbs of Boston. 

The congress now appointed George Wash- 
ington commander-in-chief, and on July 6, 
1775, they published a declaration explaining 
their motives, but denying any intention to 
separate from the mother country. Washing- 
ton, with 20,000 raw recruits, now blockaded 
Boston. They marched to Charlestown, where 
they threw up fortifications on Bunker Hill, 
which commands Boston, and though on June 
17th they were driven from it, it was only after 
a desperate struggle, in which their bravery put 
an end forever to the taunts of cowardice 
which had been levelled against them. The 
blockade of Boston, however, still continued, 
and in March, 1776, Howe was compelled to 
abandon the town and to retire to Halifax, in 
Nova Scotia. The Americans, elated with their 
success, made now an attempt upon Canada 
(November, 1775), and though this attempt 
broke down before Quebec, it showed that all 
hope of reconciliation was over. 



Declaration of Independence. — The Eng- 
lish Government felt the necessity for mak- 
ing more vigorous efforts, and, early in 1776, 
treaties had been concluded with some Ger- 
man princes (Brunswick, Hesse Cassel, etc.), 
by which they engaged to supply between 
17,000 and 18,000 men to serve against the 
Americans. This afforded the colonists a mo- 
tive for altogether renouncing their connec- 
tion with the mother country. On July 4, 
1776, Congress, under the presidency of John 
Hancock, made its Declaration of Independence, 
after a fierce resistance from the delegates of 
Pennsylvania and South Carolina, and in spite 
of the abstention of those of New York. 

" We,'' ran its solemn words, ^'' the representa- 
tives of the United States of A nierica in Congress 
assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, solemnly 
publish and declare that these United Colonies are, 
and of right ought to be, Free and Independent 
States." 

French Alliance. — The Declaration of In- 
dependence encouraged France to afford more 
active assistance to the nascent republic. 
Although Louis XVI, was averse to a war with 
England, his Queen, Marie Antoinette, was 
ardent in the cause of American liberty. 
Her feeling was shared by Vergennes, the 
Minister for Foreign Affairs, and their coun- 
sels prevailed. It was not, however, till 1778, 
that France formally recognized American in- 
dependence. The campaign of 1777 liad first 
gone in favor of the English. Howe had de- 
feated Washington at the Brandyvvine (Sep- 
tember nth) ; had subsequently taken Pliila- 
delphia(26th), and again repulsed Washington 
at Germantown (October 24th). But these 
successes were more than counterbalanced by 
the surrender of Burgoyne, at Saratoga, to 
Gates (October i6th). 

The news of Saratoga now induced France 
(February 6, 1778), to conclude an offensive 
and defensive alliance with the United States. 
Long before this, however, many distinguished 
Frenchmen had offered their swords to Amer- 
ica, and had been bravely fighting for its in- 
dependence ; among them may be named 
Lafayette, Rochambeau, De Noailles, etc. 

Surrender of Cornwallis. — After Bur- 
goyne's surrender, the English generals had 
withdrawn from Pennsylvania, and bent all 
their efforts on the Southern States, where. a 
strong royalist party still existed. 

But the capture of Charleston and Savan- 
nah, and the successes of Lord Cornwallis in 
1780, were rendered fruitless by the obstinate 
resistance of Nathaniel Greene, who, with a 
small, ill-clad, and ill-furnished army, pushed 
the British from post to post. He forced 
4 



1775—1783 A.D. 



Plate LXV. 



THE COUNTRY AROUND BOSTOX. 




Slrutheis, Sen-OSS i Co.. Engr's and Pi's, N. Y. 



FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION, 



them out of Georgia and the Carolinas, 
except that they still held Savannah and 
Charleston. Finally he drove them to the 
peninsula formed by the York and James 
Rivers, in Virginia, where Cornvvallis en- 
trenched himself in the lines of Yorktown. 
A sudden march of Washington brought him 
to the front of the English troops at a mo- 
ment that the French fleet, under Count de 
Grasse, held the entrance to the bay. Corn- 
wallis, caught in a trap, was forced, October 
19, 1 781, to a surrender as humiliating as that 
of Saratoga. This surrender was accepted on 
both sides as the end of the war. 

It was nearly two years, however, before the 
treaty of peace w^as finally signed (September 
3, 1783), in which England reserved to herself 
on the American continent only Canada, 
Nova Scotia, and the island of Newfound- 
land ; and acknowledged without reserve the 
Independence of the United States. 

The New Nation. — The territory of the 
new republic reached from the Atlantic to the 
Mississippi, and from the great lakes it spread 
to the southern border of Georgia. This vast 
tract was parcelled out among the thirteen 



original States, of which seven had well-de- 
fined boundaries ; of the remaining six, some 
laid claim to lands since given to other 
States, while a few would content themselves 
with no limit short of the Mississippi. Its 
population may have been about three and a 
quarter millions, who inhabited a narrow line 
of towns and hamlets, extending, with many 
breaks, along the coast from Maine to Geor- 
gia. But fifty miles back from the Atlan- 
tic coast the country was an unbroken jun- 
gle. 

When, seven years after the peace, the first 
census w^as taken (1790), there was found to 
be a population of nearly 4,000,000, who oc- 
cupied a belt of country between the Alle- 
ghanies and the sea. The second census 
(1800) showed over five and a quarter mill- 
ions, who had spread far beyond the Alle- 
ghanies. In 1803, when the Union was com- 
posed of seventeen States, while the popu- 
lation was pressing over the plains to the 
Mississippi, the territory of the republic was 
suddenly more than doubled by the purchase 
of Louisiana from Emperor Napoleon I. for 
$15,000,000. 



THE FORMATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. 



FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

Articles of Confederation. — The Conti- 
nental Congress had managed the affairs of 
the Union throughout the war. It only ex- 
isted by the courtesy of the States, which had 
sent delegates to it. It was sincerely hoped 
that they would continue to do so, since Con- 
gress was the only means to unite the States. 
But its powers needed sadly to be strengthened, 
since the delegates strictly obeyed their State 
governments, which made the Continental 
Congress nearly powerless. To remedy this 
evil Articles of Confederation were agreed 
upon (1777) to prevent any further interfer- 
ences by the State governments. According 
to that instrument, the union was to be a 
league of friendship — a confederation — between 
SOVEREIGN States. A congress in which the 
States should have equal voice was to manage 
their general interests. To this congress were 
delegated most of the rights of sovereignty. 
But no means were given it by which it could 
execute its powers. It could only advise the 
States, and send them its suggestions, and 
they, if they chose, could ignore them. For 



this reason the Articles of Confederatio7i were 
found to be worthless as soon as they were put 
into effect (in 1781). 

The Constitutional Convention. — All 
agreed that some new way of forming a gov- 
ernment must be tried. Virginia spoke ear- 
nestly through its legislature, and a convention 
was called " to take into consideration the 
situation of the United States." This conven- 
tion, which met in Independence Hall, Phila- 
delphia (May 14, 1787), drew up a Constitution 
of the United States which was to take the place 
of the Articles of Confederation. 

They sent the completed Constitution to 
Congress, with a letter signed by Washington, 
recommending that conventions be called in 
each State with the sole object of acting up- 
on the Constitution, in order that its ratifica- 
tion might be the direct work of the people, 
instead of that of State governments. The 
approval by the conventions of nine States 
should be necessary before the Constitution 
could become the law of the land. The advice 
of the convention was taken, and the States, 
one after another, called conventions to ratify 
or to reject it. The ratification of the ninth 



175 



1783—1803 A.D. 



Plate LXVI. 




United , 

English poss H^^J 

Spania/i posi. I I 

French poss. I I 

Oregon eountrg I I 



OPERATION OF THE CONSTITUTIOT^. 



State (New Hampshire), which assured the 
adoption of the constitution, took place in 
June, 1788. 

The Constitution. — This Constitution 
changed the confederation to a Union with a 
general government, which should have power 
to act, and not to simply advise the States. 

Like the separate States, it was to have three 
great departments of government. 

A. A legislative department (Congress) to 
make the laws. 

B. An executive department (President) to 
execute the laws. 

C. A judiciary department (Federal courts) 
to decide disputed questions under the laws. 

Congress was divided into two branches — 
the Senate and the House of Representatives. 
Senators were to serve for six years, and each 
State, large or small, was to cnoose two rep- 
resentatives, who were to serve for two years, 
and were to be chosen by the States according 
to population. The powers granted by the 
States to Congress were : To lay taxes, borrow 
and coin money, regulate commerce, establish 
post-offices, declare war, raise and support an 
army and navy, etc. 



OPERATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

The New Government. — As soon as the 
ninth State had ratified the Constitution, 
Congress appointed March 4, 1789, as the day 
on which it should become the organic law of 
the land. 

The first step to be taken under the New 
Constitution was to elect a President. The 
first Wednesday in January, 1789, was ap- 
pointed for his election. Only one man was 
held in universal esteem, and it was generally 
felt that he must be the first executive. The 
first electoral college was chosen with this ex- 
pectation.* It gave every vote to George 
Washington, while eleven candidates received 
votes for Vice-President. John Adams was 
chosen Vice-President. Congress was sum- 
moned to meet in New York on March 4th ; 
but the members had to travel far on foot or 
on horseback. Roads were bad, bridges were 
few. It was not before April 30th that Wash- 
ington was sworn into office by the chief judge 
of the State of New York. 



* The President and Vice-President of the United States 
are not elected directly by the people. Each State chooses 
as many electors as it has Senators and Representatives to- 
gether, and whichever party gains a majority of these electors 
secures the Presidency and Vice-Presidency. Originally, 
each elector merely named two persons, and the highest two 
names on the list of those voted for became President and 
Vice-President. Since 1804 each elector votes for one name 
for President, and one for Vice-President. 



Then at length Congress could commence 
business. There was difficult work to do, and 
it was done patiently, with much plain sense 
and honesty. 

From the very beginning there were two 
parties : Federalists and Anti-Federalists. 
The Federalists wanted to employ all the 
powers granted in the Constitution, and to 
establish thoroughly the sovereignty and na- 
tionality of the union. The Anti Federalists 
wanted to use as few of these powers as pos- 
sible, and give the States every opportunity 
possible to increase their influence. Wash- 
ington, knowing that he held the confidence 
of both, tried to unite both parties on a middle 
ground. He chose for his Cabinet Hamilton 
and Knox as representative Federalists, and 
Jefferson and Randolph as representative Anti- 
Federalists. Hamilton was the head of the 
Treasury, Knox of the Department of War, 
and Jefferson of the Department of Foreign 
Affairs. These heads of Departments were called 
Secretaries, and with the Attorney-General, 
Randolph, formed the President's Cabinet.* 

To please the Anti-Federalists, twelve 
amendments to the Constitution were adopted 
to guard the freedom of the people against the 
encroachments of the General Government. 
They pleased the Anti-Federalists, but did, 
luckily, not affect the character or working of 
the Constitution. Ten of these were ratified 
by the States. 

Regulation of the Finances. — As yet there 
was no revenue, while everywhere there was 
debt. Washington asked a friend, "What is 
to be done about this heavy debt ? " " There 
is but one man in America can tell you," he 
was answered, " and that man is Alexander 
Hamilton." 

Washington put him at the head of the 
Treasury. The success of his financial meas- 
ures was immediate and complete. " He 
smote the rock of the national resources," 
said Daniel Webster, " and abundant streams 
of revenue gushed forth. He touched the 
dead corpse of the public credit, and it sprang 
upon its feet," He presented to Congress a 
plan for the payment of all debts incurred 
during the war. These debts were of three 
kinds : The foreign debt of the Confederacy, 
the domestic debt of the Confederacy, and the 
revolutionary debt of the States. Notwith- 
standing great opposition his plan was finally 
adopted. The consequences of this assump- 
tion of the State debts by the United States 



* The Navy Department was added in 1798 ; it had pre- 
viously been apart of the War Department. The Post-ofifice 
Department was added in 1829 ; it had previously been a 
part of the Treasury Department. In 1849 the Department 
of the Interior was organized. 



176 



1803—1845 A.D. 



Plate LXVII, 




Struthers, Senoss i Co.. Engr's and Pr's. N.Y. 



SUPREMACY OF THE FEDERALIST PARTY, 



were greatly increased power and influ- 
ence of the General Government and cor- 
respondingly decreased power of the States, 
especially after efficient provision was made 
for the regular payment of interest, and for 
a sinking fund to liquidate the principal. 
Duties were imposed on shipping, on goods 
imported from abroad, and on spirits manu- 
factured at home. The vigor of the Govern- 
ment inspired public confidence, and com- 
merce began to revive. In a few years the 
American flag was seen on every sea. 

The crowning effort of Hamilton's financial 
policy was the establishment of a national 
bank in 1791. 

THE THIRTY YEARS' PEACE. 

Supremacy of the Federalist Party. — 

The War of Independence was succeeded by 
thirty years of peace, during which there were 
indeed some trivial agitations (Indian wars, war 
with Tripoli, etc.), but tl:iey did not in reality 
disturb tlie profound tranquillity of the na- 
tion, or hinder its progress in that career of 
prosperity on which it had now entered. In- 
numerable details connected with the estab- 
lishment of a new government were discussed 
and fixed. The national capital, from 1790- 
1800 in Philadelphia, w^as, in the latter year, 
transplanted to the banks of the Potomac, re- 
mote from the agitations which arise in the 
great centres of population. Succeeding gen- 
erations have approved the wisdom of their 
early legislators, and continue almost un- 
altered the arrangements which were framed 
at the outset of the national existence. 

Washington was President during the first 
eight years of the national life, refusing to be 
a candidate for a third term of office. In 1796 
he issued his " Farewell Address "to the Amer- 
ican people. In that address, which is weighty 
with wisdom, he urged them to make religion, 
education, and public good faith the founda- 
tions of their government, to remain united, 
and resist foreign influence. '* Extend your 
business relations with Europe," he said, "but 
do not be dragged into her politics. Do not 
suffer yourselves to have passionate attach- 
ments for other nations. Be strong in your- 
selves, and you will be independent of the 
Old World." 

When it was known that Washineton 



Adams began his administration with a de- 
termination to follow Washington's neutral 
policy. But at the very beginning of his ad- 
ministration there was a severe misunder- 
standing with the French Directory, w^hich was 
carried to a somewhat perilous extreme. A 
desperate fight took place between the French 
frigate JJ Insurgente and the American frigate 
the Co?istenation, resulting in the surrender of the 
former. Our national song, "Hail, Columbia!" 
was born during this excitement. War, how- 
ever, was averted by the overthrow of the Direc- 
tory in France by Bonaparte, who hastened 
to make peace with the United States (Sep- 
tember, 1800). During this administration the 
Federalists proposed and carried three vigor- 
ous measures, intended to secure and promote 
good order : 

I. An Alien Law, which vested in the Presi- 
dent power to order from the country any 
alien, whom he might judge dangerous to 
public peace, or to cause his imprisonment if 
he failed to obey. 

II. A Sedition Law, which imposed a severe 
punishment on any who should seek to injure 
the Gov^ernment by false or scandalous reports, 
or should conspire to oppose it. 

III. Revision of the Naturalization Laws, 
making it more difficult for foreigners to be- 
come citizens. 

The unpopularity of these acts prevented 
the re-election of Adams. The Anti-Federal- 
ist (or Republican) nominees, Jefferson and 
Burr, received the majority of votes ; but, as 
each had the same number, the election went 
to the House of Representatives, which chose 
Jefferson for President and Burr for Vice- 
President. 

This election made an end to the supremacy 
of the Federalist party. It had lasted twelve 
years, during which it had put in successful 
operation the Constitution w^hich it had framed 
and adopted. It had established a new gov- 
ernment, made a credit for the country, re- 
vived industry and commerce, and brought 
back prosperity. It had accomplished a gi- 
gantic task. 

Supremacy of the Republican Party. — 
The Anti-Federalist or Republican party came 
into power in 1801, with the inauguration of 
Thomas Jefferson. No man could ask for 
brighter prospects than those which greeted 
him on his entrance into office. The Gov- 



would not accept re-election, the Federalists I ernment was firmly established, and loyal 
looked to John Adams as his successor, and feeling toward the Constitution was increas- 



Jefiferson was the undisputed choice of the 
Anti-Federalists (or Republicans). Adams, 
receiving the greatest number of votes, be- 
came President, and Jefferson, receiving the 
next highest, became Vice-President. 



ing. 

Jefferson's eight years of office saw great 
changes. In his first term the prosperity, due 
to the Federal measures of the preceding 
years, bore full fruit, and he reaped the har 



I 



177 



1790—1842 A.D. 



Plate LXVTTI. 




Siruthur^, Senuss i Co., Eogr'i a.ij Pr's, N.Y. 



THE WAR 01^ 1812. 



vest. His great deed was the Louisiana pur- 
chase.* In his second term he injudiciously 
rejected the English treaty and suggested the 
Embargo Act, which greatly weakened the 
country, and threatened to divide New Eng- 
land from it. Public feeling had continually 



strengthened in Jefferson's favor in his first 
term ; in his second term it made no advance, 
but rather fell back, because his course was so 
far from wise. His successor, James Madison, 
found himself at the head of the nation in very 
troublous times. 



FIRST TRIALS OF THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 



THE ENGLISH WAR OF 1812. 

Cause. — In the beginning of the nineteenth 
century, while the flames of war consumed 
the nations of the Old World, the mercantile 
fleet of the United States enjoyed a monopoly. 
The young Republic traded impartially with 
all the combatants. While the energies of 
Eiirope were taxed to the uttermost by a 
gigantic work of mutual destruction, the 
American merchants made great gain of their 
madness. But during the struggle between 
France and England, the decrees of a mutual 
blockade of their ports, issued by both bellig- 
erents, closed Europe against American ves- 
sels. Many captures w^ere made, especially 
by English cruisers. Besides, English men- 
of-war claimed the right to search American 
vessels for men who had deserted ; and also 
for men who, as born English subjects, were 
liable to be impressed. America imwisely re- 
taliated by closing her ports against the Euro- 
pean powers who had so offended. Thus, for 
four years commerce was suspended, and 
grass grew on the idle wharves of New York 
and Philadelphia. Tens of thousands of 
working people were thrown idle. The irri- 
tation of the impoverished nation was fast 
ripening toward war. On June i8, 1812, Con- 
gress passed a bill which declared war against 
Great Britain. It was by no means a unani- 
mous movement. New England bitterly op- 
posed it. The chief support came from the 
South and West, which, having no towns to 

* In 1800, the Spanish governor of Louisiana refused to ad- 
mit United States vessels into the Port of New Orleans ; but 
the threatened cloud passed over. Louisiana having been 
ceded to France, Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1803, sold it to the 
American Government for $15,000,000. Of this sale, Napo- 
leon is said to have remarked: " This accession of territory 
strengthens forever the power of the United States, and I have 
just given to England a maritime rival^ which "will sooner or 
later humble her pride. "' 

By this Louisiana Purchase the United States acquired : 
all of its present area between the Mississippi and the Rocky 
Mountains, north of the then northern boundary of Mexico, 
the island on which New Orleans stands, and a claim to 
Texas and West Florida (West Florida was that portion of 
the present States of Alabama and Mississippi which was 
south of the 31° north latitude). It more than doubled the 
area of the republic. 



be bombarded, preferred to try their strength 
with England in battle. 

Campaigns of 1812. — The declaration of 
war seemed an act of sheer madness. For 
England possessed 1,000 men-of-war, and the 
United States hardly twenty. England had 
1,000,000 of well-drilled veterans— the army of 
the United States, hardly numbering twenty- 
five thousand, was a mass of half-drilled and 
half-armed recruits. Three attempts to pene- 
trate into Canada during the summer and fall 
were repulsed with heavy loss. But these fail- 
ures were more than redeemed by unexpected 
successes at sea, where in successive engage- 
ments five British men of-war were taken in 
battle by the Americans and forced to strike 
their flag. The effect of these victories was im- 
mense, for they were tJie first heavy blows 7vhich 
had been dealt at England's supremacy over the seas. 

Campaigns of 1813. — In 1813, these naval 
triumphs on the ocean were followed up by 
even more vigorous efforts on the inland seas. 
Under Perry's direction a fleet was built on 
Lake Erie which utterly destroyed the British 
flotilla ; Toronto was captured, and Upper 
Canada occupied. An attack on Lower Can- 
ada, however, failed, and a fresh advance of 
the British and Canadian forces recovered the 
Upper Province. 

This reverse gave fresh strength to the 
peace party. Cries of secession began to be 
heard, and Massachusetts took the bold step 
of appointing delegates from the other New 
England States '' on the subject of their griev- 
ances and common concerns." 

Campaigns of 1814. — In 1814, however, 
the war was renewed with more vigor than 
ever. Upper Canada was again invaded. 
But the American army, after inflicting two 
severe defeats on the British forces at Chip- 
pewa, July 5th, and at Lundy's Lane, July 
25th, was forced, for want of ammunition, to 
retreat to the defences of Fort Erie. A month 
later, August 24th, General Ross appeared on 
the Potomac, captured the defenceless town of 
Washington, and, before evacuating it, burned 
its public buildings to the ground. 



178 



I 



THE MEXICAN WAR. 



Successful as the valiant British were in 
burning a defenceless town, they failed sig- 
nally in their attempts to penetrate into the 
Republic from the North and from the South. 

The British army, which marched in Sep- 
tember to the attack of Plattsburg, on Lake 
Champlain, was forced to fall back by the de- 
feat of the English flotilla which accompanied 
it. A second force, under General Packen- 
ham, appeared in December at the mouth of 
the Mississippi, and attacked Kew Orleans, 
but was repulsed (January 8, 1815) by General 
Jackson, with the loss of half its number. 
Peace, however, had already been concluded 
/December 24, 1814, at Ghent). 

FLORIDA. 

The Cession. — By this war, the indepen- 
dence of the United States was securely fixed. 
England withdrew her last claim to sovereignty. 
The Republic was henceforth to be one of the 
great powers of the world. It still, however, 
was cut off from the Gulf of Mexico by the 
Spanish dependency of the Floridas. Finally, 
in 1819, Spain gave up all claim to West 
Florida, which had been occupied by the 
United States since 1810, and ceded East 
Florida. The United States gave up all claim 
to Texas, and agreed to pay an indemnity of 
five millions to its own citizens for claims 
which they had against Spain.* 

The Indians. — On March 3, 1822, Congress 
passed an act establishing the Territory of 
Florida, and the machinery of free representa- 
tive government was soon in regular working 
order, and immigration began to move in. 
The settling of the country would have pro- 
ceeded much more rapidly but for the difficul- 
ties presented by the Indians, who were in 
possession of the best lands, and extremely 
jealous of their rights. It was the desire of the 
whites that all red men should be removed to 
some reservation west of the Mississippi. But 
the majority of the Indians were bitterly op- 
posed to such a change, and when the author- 
ities determined to remove them by force, 
they stoutly resisted. Hereupon began the 
longest, bloodiest, and costliest war that was 
ever waged between whites and Indians in 
America. 

The Seminole War. — The Senmwle War 
began with the appalling massacre of Major 
Dade's command on December 2^^, 1835, and 
raged unceasingly until August, 1842. But, 
though triumphant in the end, the United 

* This happened during the presidency of Monroe, whose 
administration had followed Madison's in 1817. Monroe oc- 
cupied the presidency until 1825. For a full list of the Pres- 
idents of the United States, see note at the end of the History 
of the United States. 



States had paid dearly for the victory, and the 
growth of Florida had been set back fully a 
generation. Plantations that dated from the 
earliest settlement of the country had been 
broken up, agricultural occupations had been 
almost completely suspended, and immigrants 
were deterred from venturing where the con- 
ditions of life were so precarious. But, after 
the war was ended, immigration began afresh, 
and in 1845 Florida was admitted to the 
Union. 

THE MEXICAN WAR. 

Texas. — The United States now controlled 
the entire seaboard from the St. Croix River 
in the northeast to the Sabine River in the 
southwest. When Louisiana was purchased 
from France (1803), there was a dispute with 
Spain whether its boundary was the Sabine 
River or the Rio Grande. Although it had 
been settled, at the cession of Florida, that 
the boundary between Louisiana and Mexico 
should be the Sabine River, the Washington 
Government continued to have an eye on the 
Rio Grande as border line. 

Both John Quincy Adams and Jackson, 
during their presidential terms, tried to buy 
Texas (the country between the Sabine and 
Rio Grande) of Mexico, who refused to sell. 
But in 1836 Texas declared itself independent 
of Mexico, and, as soon as its independence 
was recognized, it sought adrnission into the 
Union. The then President, Van Buren (1837- 
1841) fearing w^ar with Mexico, denied the 
request. The question came up again in 1844, 
and upon this the election of the next President 
was based. The Democrats (the Anti-Federal- 
ists or Republicans of former days) favored, 
the Whigs (the Federalists) opposed annexa- 
tion. The Democrats carried the day. Their 
candidate, James K. Polk, was elected, and 
Texas was admitted to the Union. The an- 
nexation was hardly confirmed when Texas, 
in anticipation of trouble with Mexico, asked 
for protection, as a dispute had already arisen 
concerning the western boundary, Texas claim- 
ing the Rio Grande and Mexico the Nueces 
River. 

Mexican War. — When the Mexicans re- 
fused to settle the matter by treaty General 
Zachary Taylor called for volunteers from 
Louisiana and Texas, and moved his army from 
the Nueces River to the Rio Grande. A Mexi- 
can force in the neighborhood attempted to in- 
tercept him. A severe engagement took place 
(May 8, 1846) at Palo Alto, in which the Mex- 
icans, though vastly superior in numbers, 
were defeated. The next day they made a 
far more desperate fight, but again were 
beaten, and fled across the river. Four days 



179 



CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAK. 



^ater the United States declared war against 
Mexico, and called for 50,000 volunteers. The 
troops were organized into three divisions ; 
one under Taylor to hold the disputed terri- 
tory ; one under Scott to march to the City of 
Mexico ; and one under Kearney to enter Mex- 
ico from the north. Taylor captured Mata- 
moras and Monterey, and (February, 1847) 
gained a brilliant victory at Buena Vista. 
Kearney entered Santa Fe, and then passed 
on to California, where John C. Fremont had 
rallied the people to throw off the Mexican 
yoke. Scott landed in March, 1847, at Vera 
Cruz, which, after a fierce bombardment of 
four days, was taken (March 29, 1847). A 
week afterward the army took up its march 
for the capital. The strongly fortified passes 
(Cerro Gordo, etc.) all surrendered. On Au- 
gust loth Scott, with about 10,000 men, reached 
the crest of the Cordilleras, where the mag- 
nificent Valley of Mexico lay stretched before 
them. In the midst was the city, surrounded 
by fertile plains and cloud-capped mountains. 
But the way thither was guarded by 30,000 
men and strong fortifications. Scott, how- 



I ever, overcaaie all difficulties, and on the 
I night of September 13th the City of Mexico 
I was evacuated by the Government, and the 
I American flag was raised next day in the cap- 
! ital. 

The Mexican Cessions. — The war was 
ended by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 
(February 2, 1848). In this treaty Mexico 
agreed that the Rio Grande should be the 
boundary between the two republics, and, in 
consideration of $15,000,000, ceded to the 
United States the provinces of New^ Mexico 
and Upper California. Five years later, the 
boundary between the United States and 
Mexico was definitely settled by the Gadsden 
purchase. The area acquired by these two 
cessions was nearly five hundred and sixty- 
eight thousand square miles, for which the 
United States paid in all $25,000,000. 

Shortly after the cession of California great 
excitement was caused by the discovery of 
gold on the Sacramento River. People 
flocked thither from the East, and from all 
parts of the Old World, and the population 
grew with great rapidity. 



THE GREAT TRIAL-THE CIVIL WAR. 



THE CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

Cotton. — When Europeans first visited the 
southern part of the present United States 
they found, in abundant growth there, an un- 
important-looking plant, two or three feet in 
height, studded with pods, which, opening in 
the ball, revealed a wealth of soft, white 
fibre, to which the seeds of the plant were te- 
naciously adhering. This was cotton. The 
English began very soon to cultivate it, al- 
though it was a difficult crop for them to han- 
dle ; for, before the fibre could be used, the 
seeds had to be removed, and it was as much 
as a man could do in a day to separate one 
pound of cotton from the seeds. Cotton could 
never be abundant or cheap while this was the 
case. 

The Cotton-gin — But after Richard Ark- 
wright had (1768) invented his spinning-ma- 
chine, and James Watt (1769) his steam-en- 
gine, England was ready to begin to weave 
cotton for the world, if only it could get the 
cotton. This problem was solved, in 1792, by 
Eli Whitney's cotton-gin, a simple machine 
which could perform the work of hundreds of 
men. Whitney's invention made the grow^th 
of cotton profitable ; and, as a consequence, 
slave-holding became lucrative, for slaves 



proved to be the cheapest hands in the cot- 
ton-fields. 

King Cotton. — Henceforth cotton was king, 
and slavery was its life-guard. The North 
participated in the gains of slavery. The cot- 
ton-planter borrowed money at high interest 
from the Northern capitalist. He bought his 
goods in Northern markets ; he sent his cotton 
to the North for sale. The Northern merchants 
made money at his hands, and were in no 
haste to overthrow the Southern institutions, 
out of which results so pleasant flowed ; be- 
sides, they were convinced that the condition 
of the slaves was far preferable to that of the 
free European laborer. 

The Abolitionists. — But among another 
part of the population of the North hatred to 
slavery was slowly growling. In the eyes of 
some of them, slaver)^ was an enormous sin, 
fitted to bring the curse of God upon the 
land. To others it was a political evil, mar^ 
ring the unity and hindering the progress of 
the country. In 1832 the American Anti-sla- 
very Society w^as formed, composed of twelve 
members. But within three years there were 
two hundred anti-slavery societies in America; 
in seven years more they had increased to two 
thousand. The war against slavery was now 
begun in earnest. 



180 



1846—1848 A.D. 



Plate LXIX. 




THE CIVIL WAE. 



The Missouri Compromise. — One man, 
towering far above all pro-slavery and anti- 
slavery leaders, sought to calm the strife, 
which he foresaw would lead to a disruption of 
the Union and to civil war ; this was Henry 
Clay, of Kentucky. 

For many years of the prolonged struggle, 
he seemed to stand between North and South, 
wielding authority over both. His aim was to 
deliver his dearly beloved country from the 
taint of slavery ; but he would effect that great 
revolution step by step, as the country could 
bear it. True statesman as he was, at every 
crisis he was ready with a compromise — the 
onlv object of all true statesmanship. His 
proposals soothed the angry passions which 
were aroused when Missouri sought admission 
into the Union. By the Missouri compromise 
(1820) slavery was to be permitted in Missouri, 
but was to be prohibited forever in all other 
territory north of t^^^ 30', the southern boun- 
dary of Missouri. But thirty years later it was 
repealed, and to the territories north of ^^6° 30' 
the right was given to decide by vote, whether 
they were to be slave or free States. 

Kansas and Nebraska. — In 1852 a contest 
arose in Congress over the organization into 
Territories of the country lying west of Mis- 
souri and Iowa. Senator Douglas introduced 
a bill for organizing the Territories of Kansas 
and Nebraska, giving them, according to the 
compromise of 1850, the right to decide 
whether they were to have slavery or not. 
The bill was passed in 1854, after a sharp de- 
bate, which proved that the conflict was irre- 
pressible. After much wrangling, and even 
fighting, they declared against slavery. 

Secession of South Carolina. — In i860 
the Republican, or anti-slavery party, elected 
Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency. The 
South had declared beforehand, that if the 
Republican party were successful, the slave- 
holding States would leave the Union. South 
Carolina now took the lead in fulfilling the 
promise of secession. The Senators from the 
State, and all office-holders in South Caroli- 
na under the Federal Government, resigned. 
The Legislature called a State convention, 
which on December 20th unanimously passed 
an ordinance of secession. It bore the title, 
'■''An ordinance to dissolve the union between the 
State of South Carolina and other States united 
with her in the compact entitled the Constitution of 
the United States.'" 

The Confederacy. — The example of South 
Carolina was at once followed by Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Florida. 
They formed (February 7, 1861) a government 
under the name of the Confederate States of 
America^ thereby declaring that the States 



formed a Confederacy and not a Union. They 
adopted a constitution, differing from the old 
mainly in these respects, that it contained pro- 
visions against a protective tariff, and gave 
effective securities for the permanence and 
extension of slavery. Jefferson Davis was 
elected President for six years. After the 
government was formed the Confederacy was 
joined by those other slave States which, at first, 
had hesitated — Virginia, North Carolina, Ten- 
nessee, Arkansas, and Texas. The Confeder- 
acy in its completed form was composed of 
eleven States, with a population of nine mill- 
ions, one-third of which were slaves. Twenty- 
three States remained in the Union, their 
population amounting to twenty-two millions. 
War was now inevitable, but both parties be- 
lieved that after a short struggle they would 
come out victorious. 

THE WAR. 

The Task. — The South, despising an ad- 
versary unpractised in war, and vainly trust- 
ing that the European powders would interfere, 
expected that a few victories would bring 
peace and independence. The North still re- 
garded secession as little more than a gigantic 
riot, which she proposed to extinguish within 
ninety days. The truth was strangely different 
from the prevailing belief of the day. A high- 
spirited people, six m.illions in number, occu- 
pying a fertile territory nearly a million square 
miles in extent, had risen against the Govern- 
ment. The task undertaken by the North was 
to conquer this people, and by force of arms 
to bring them and their territory back to the 
Union. 

The Theatre of War. — The Confederacy 
presented three distinctly marked regions, sep- 
arated from each other by the Mississippi and 
the Alleghany Mountains. 

1. The right region, or the territory west of 
the Mississippi, intrinsically of little military 
value. 

2. The left region, or the territory east of the 
Alleghany Mountains, a constant menace to 
Washington, and of great political importance. 

3. The central region, or the territory between 
the Mississippi and the AUeghanies, the stra- 
tegical heart of the Confederacy. 

Their only complete east and west bond was 
the railroad from Memphis, on the Missis- 
sippi, to Charleston, on the Atlantic. The 
great strategical position on this line was 
Chattanooga, where the road bifurcates in a 
northern branch to Richmond, and a south- 
eastern branch to Savannah and Charleston. 

The cutting of this railroad would be the sever- 
ing of the Confederacy. 

For its protection there was established, one 



181 



1845—1886 A.D. 



Plate LXX, 



W^ 




StrutKeis, Seivuss ii Co., Eagr's and Tr's, N.Y. 



Tin: civil, WAii. 



hundred and fifty miles to the north, parallel 
to it, a military line extending from Columbus, 
on the Mississippi, through Forts Henry and 
Donelson, to Bowling Green. A navigable 
river, the Tennessee, flows perpendicularly 
through this northern line, and runs parallel 
with the Memphis-Charleston Railroad. The 
task of the North was, to burst through the 
Coluuibus-Bowling Green line, break the Mem- 
phis-Charleston Railroad Txxidi secure possession 
of the stragetic point of Chattanooga. This 
being accomplished, the opening of the Mis- 
sissippi would follow, as a matter of course. 
The great result, however, would be the 
division of the Confederacy, the preliminary 
of its fall. For this would place the Con- 
federate forces in Virginia between two Union 
armies, one threatening it from the north of 
Richmond, the other through the postal of 
Chattanooga. In the east, the proper aim of 
the Union armies should have been the de- 
struction of the Confederate forces, not the 
taking of Richmond, which the Confederacy 
could afford to lose without being materially 
weakened thereby. 

Bull Run. — But the North hoped to bring 
the war to a speedy close by the capture of 
Richmond. Their first forward movement, 
however, terminated in their utter defeat at 
Bull Run (July 21st). The great result of this 
defeat was that it taught the North the real 
nature of the terrific struggle in which it was 
engaged. On the day after the battle. Con- 
gress voted $500,000,000 and called for half a 
million of volunteers. 

Forcing of the Columbus-Bowling 
Green Line. — George B. McClellan was ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief under the Presi- 
dent (October 31,1861). He employed the fall 
and winter of 1861 in organizing an army of 
200,000 men. Tired of his inactivity, the Pres- 
ident issued an order that on February 22, 
1862, a general movement of the land and na- 
val forces should take place. With this order, 
which was suggested by Stafitofi, the new Sec- 
retary of War, the war may be said to have 
begun systematically. To Grant was assigned 
the forcing of the Coliunbiis-Bowling Green line. 
Proceeding up the Tennessee River, he took 
Fort Henry (February 6th). Then marching 
across the country, he took Fort Donelson, on 
the Cumberland River (February i6th), and the 
first Confederate line was pierced. This vic- 
tory gave the North absolute control of Ken- 
tucky, and of a large part of Tennessee. The 
attempt to recover them was given up after 
the Confederate defeat at Murfreesborough 
(December 31, 1862), which battle convinced 
them that they could not break through the 
line of investment between the Cumberland 



1 Mountains and the Free States, and that the 
I struggle was destined to be a long and fierce 

one. 
I The Blockade. — The financial strength of 
the Confederacy, which was the measure of 
her war-strength, turned on the possibility of 
converting her cotton into gold. To prevent 
this, the Southern ports had to be blockaded 
or taken. Such effective measures were taken 
that at the end of 1862 every city of the sea- 
coast, except Savannah, Charleston, and Mo- 
bile, was held by the North. But the various 
attempts to take Richmond, by McClellan, 
Pope, and Burnside, proved total failures. On 
September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued his eman- 
cipation-proclamation, in which it was de- 
clared, " that on the first day of January, 1863, 
all persons held as slaves within any State or 
designated part of a State, the people where- 
of shall be in rebellion against the United 
States, shall be then, thenceforward and for- 
ever, free." 

Gettysburg. — The third year of the war 
(1863) opened very disastrously for the North, 
both in the East and in the West. Galveston 
was retaken by the Confederates ; Burnside's 
march upon Lee was stopped by storms ; Du- 
pont's naval attack on Charleston failed ; the 
Confederate cruisers destroyed the commerce 
of the North ; Banks was unable to take Port 
Hudson ; Grant had not yet accomplished the 
capture of Vicksburg. The battle of Chancel- 
lorsville (May 2d and 3d), where Hooker's ar- 
my was well-nigh annihilated by Lee, was the 
culmination of this series of disasters. Lee, 
moving rapidly down the Shenandoah Valley, 
entered Pennsylvania. The Northern army, 
reinforced, and now commanded by Meade, 
followed, and took up a strong position on the 
hills near Gettysburg, where it was attacked 
(July ist) by Lee. This decisive battle, the 
greatest of the war, began July ist, and ended 
July 3d, in a victory for the North. 

The day after Gettysburg, Vicksburg sur- 
rendered to Grant, Port Hudson followed 
(July 9th), and the Mississippi, as President 
I^incoln said, " ran unvexed to the sea.'' 

The Closing Year. — Grant's victory at 
Chattanooga (November 23-25) secured that 
important strategical point permanently to 
the North. After this battle, when Grant had 
been raised to the chief military command 
(March 9, 1864), began those grand manoeu- 
vres which brought the war to a close. Com- 
mitting the overthrow of the Georgian army 
to Sherman, he charged himself with the 
destruction of the Virginian army. It took 
him over a year. Finally, on April 3, 1865, the 
Federal flag floated over the Southern capital. 
Lee had hurried westward, aiming to unite 



182 



1861-1865 A.D, 



Plate LXXI. 



THEATRE OF WAR IN THE UNITED STATES. 

1861—1865 




iJECONSTRUCTION. 



with Johnston's army in North Carolina. But 
Sherman, who had completed his victorious 
March to the Sea, and had entered (March 3, 
1865) Goldsborough, North Carolina, barred 
the path of Lee's retreating army. He sur- 
rendered to Grant, April 9th, at Appo?nattox 
Court-house. Johnston surrendered to Sherman 
(April 26th). By the end of May, 1865, all the 
Confederate forces had surrendered. The 
War of the Great Rebellion was at an end. 

AFTER THE WAR. 

The Reconstruction Act. — The South had 
appealed to the sword, and the decision had 
been against her. She frankly and wisely ac- 
cepted it, and laid aside all thought of armed 
resistance. Her leaders did not, however, con- 
sent readily to those guarantees of future tran- 
quillity which the North sternly demanded. 
Congress therefore passed (March 2, 1867) the 
Reconstruction Act, by which the ten Southern 
States were divided into five military districts, 
each commanded by an army officer, who 
should see to the protection of life and prop- 
erty. The seceded States were to be restored 
to their place in the Union, whenever a con- 
vention of delegates, '' elected by the male 
citizens ... of whatever race, color, or pre- 
vious condition," except those disfranchised 
for participation in rebellion, etc., should 
frame a Constitution, which, being ratified by 
the people and approved by Congress, should 
go into operation, and the Legislature there- 
upon elected should adopt the fourteenth 
amendment. This amendment secured to the 
freedmen the right of citizenship, declared 
the validity of the national debt, and regulated 
the basis of representation and disqualification 
from office. 

Restoration of the Union. — For five years 
after the end of the war, some of the South- 
ern States continued to refuse these terms, 
and consequently continued to endure the 
evils of military rule. Gradually, however, as 
time smoothed the bitterness of defeat, they 
withdrew their refusal and consented to re- 
sume their position in the Union on the con- 
ditions which were offered to them. In 1870 
President Grant was able to announce the 
complete restoration of the Union, which his 
own leadership had done so mucii to save. 

Slowly the Southern people began to under- 
stand that slavery was not absolutely neces- 
sary for the cultivation of cotton. 

The largest cotton crop before the war (in 
i860) was hardly four and a half million bales. 
Thirty years later (in 1890) it was almost seven 
and a half million bales, and it furnished two- 
thirds of the world's supply of cotton. 

Neither is the South exclusively agricultural. 



Mills and factories have sprung up everywhere, 
and it promises to become unsurpassed in the 
production of manufactured goods. All this 
was revealed to the world by the Atlanta Ex- 
position of 1895. 

The Public Debt —On New Year's Day, 
1879, specie payments were resumed, after 
seventeen years of an inconvertible currency. 
The public debt had reached its maximum, 
August 31, 1865, on which day it amounted 
to $2,845,907,626.56. When specie payments 
were resumed, more than nine hundred million 
dollars of the debt had been paid, and on July 
I, 1886, it had been reduced over one-half 
($1,389,136,383.40). 

At this time it was found that $100,000,000 
were piled up every year in the treasury after 
all expenses of the government were paid. 
President Cleveland's recommendation to re- 
duce the tariff to make the revenue and expenses 
more nearly equal was not adopted. The tariff 
question became then the war-cry for the two 
great parties. 

The Democrats demanded a tariff chiefly 
for revenue; the Republicans wanted a higher 
tanfi/or the protection of American industry. 

In the election of 1888 the Republicans were 
entirely successful. They elected not only the 
President (Harrison), but also a majority of 
both branches of Congress. The result was the 
passage of the McKinley Bill {a high protective 
tariff). 

The next election (1892) was gained by the 
Democrats. A revision of the tariff was made 
by the Wilson Bill {a lower protective tariff). 

One feature of this tariff revision was an in- 
come tax. All incomes of over $4,000 a year 
were to pay two per cent. The reduction 
in the tariff rates was, of course, expected 
to reduce the revenue of government, and 
this income tax was intended to keep up the 
revenue and prevent a deficit. But the Su- 
preme Court declared the income tax to be 
unconstitutional. 

The Monroe Doctrine. — There was an old 
dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain 
about the true boundary line separating Vene- 
zuela from British Guiana. The United States 
insisted that, in justice to Venezuela, England 
should let the principle of arbitration be ap- 
plied. England answered, that she would set- 
tle her own disputes without the interference 
of the United States. 

The government at Washington, through 
Richard Olney, Secretary of State, declared 
that this answer was in violation of the Monroe 
Doctrine. " Any attempt on the part of a Euro- 
pean nation to interfere 7vith the independence 
of an A merican state will be regarded as an un- 
friendly act.'* 



183 



GROWTH OF THE NATION. 



At President Cleveland's suggestion, a 
Boundary Commission was appointed. But 
before it could present its report the difficulty 
had been arranged by an arbitration treaty, as 
the United States had proposed from the be- 
ginning. This resulted in the proposal of a 
General Arbitration Treaty between the United 
States and Great Britain. Although heartily 
approved by public opinion in both countries, 
it was rejected by the Senate. 

The Presidential Campaign of 1896.— 
In 1896 the old question of a protective tariff 
or a tariff for revenue, although still the dis- 
tinctive war cry of both parties, was compli- 
cated with another question: 
" Shall we have a free and unlimited coinage 
of silver (Democrats), or shall we maintain a 
gold standard (Republicans) ? 

The Republicans carried the election by a 
strong majority, and at once, directly after Mc- 
Kinley's inauguration, the new congress began 
once more the revision of the tariff. This re- 
sulted in the passage of the Dingley Tariff Bill 
(July 24, 1897), in the interest of high protec- 
tion. 

War with Spain. — For many years previ- 
ous to 1895 the people of Cuba had been inter- 
mittently struggling to free themselves from 
the merciless tyranny of Spain. The first re- 
volt in 1823 was followed by others at intervals 
of two or three years. At length came the 
great "ten years' war" of 1868-1878, after 
which there was quiet until 1895, when a new 
rebellion broke out under abler leaders than 
ever before. Spain put forth all her strength 
to crush the insurrection, resorting at last to 
inhuman practices by which many thousands 
of helpless non-combatants — old men, women, 
and children — perished miserably from starva- 
tion and disease. Early in 1898 the condition 
of brave and struggling Cuba appealed irre- 
sistibly to the sympathy of the United States. 
Neutrality was felt to be no longer possible, 
and this government determined to interfere. 
Efforts were made in vain to induce the Span- 
ish Government to withdraw from Cuba. Fi- 
nally on the 19th of April Congress recognized 
the independence of Cuba, demanded that 
Spain relinquish her authority there and with- 
draw from the island, and authorized the Presi- 
dent to enforce the demand. War was thus 
declared. 

It was commonly believed throughout the 
country that Spain had already struck the first 
blow in the destruction of the United States 
battle-ship J/<:?/«^ in the harbor of Havana, the 
night of February 15th, where the vessel had 
been ordered to pay a friendly and official 
visit. The loss of the splendid ship was at- 
tended by the more dreadful loss of many 



lives of officers and men — two hundred and 
sixty-six in all. This awful disaster was found 
to be the result of an explosion of submarine 
mines. The responsibility could not be charged 
to the Spanish Government, yet the conviction 
was almost universal that the mines had been 
exploded with the knowledge of Spanish author- 
ities in Havana. Thus the declaration of war 
found the people of the United States ready 
to respond to the call for any number of men 
and any amount of treasure that might be re- 
quired. With foresight and energy, the coast 
defences had been improved and the navy 
greatly strengthened. The regular army was 
now enlarged to sixty-two thousand men, and 
a volunteer force of some two hundred thou- 
sand men called out. In the engagements 
which followed, the navy won the larger part, 
yet there were desperate battles fought on 
land. On the first day of May an American 
fleet under Commodore Dewey attacked the 
Spanish fleet and forts in Manila Bay under 
command of Admiral Montojo, sunk all the 
larger vessels and disabled the forts. On July 
ist and 2d, the American army in Cuba won 
the brilliant victories of El Caney and San 
Juan. On the 3d of July the American fleet 
under Admiral Sampson, Commodore Schley 
being in command at the moment, completely 
destroyed the Spanish fleet under Admiral 
Cervera at Santiago. 

In a few months Spain was vanquished and 
sued for peace. A peace protocol was signed 
at Paris, August 12th, and hostilities between 
the two countries were at an end. By the 
terms of the protocol Spain relinquished for- 
ever her claim to Cuba, ceded to the United 
States Porto Rico and subsidiary islands in the 
West Indies, the whole Philippine archipelago, 
and the island of Guam in the Ladrone group. 
These cessions were confirmed by the Treaty 
of Paris, December 10, 1898, by which also the 
United States was to pay $20,000,000 for the 
Philippines. Spain was thus left without a 
foothold on the American continent, and de- 
spoiled of her richest possessions in the Pacific. 
The United States at once occupied Cuba with 
a military force, preliminary to the formation 
by the people of the island of an independent 
government. 

Cuba. — A Constitutional Convention met in 
Havana November 5, 1900, and did not finally 
adjourn until October i, 1901. A Constitution 
for the government of the island was adopted, 
modelled largely after that of the United 
States. Certain measures proposed and re- 
quired by the Congress of the United States in 
the interest of both parties were appended as 
a separate ordinance to the Cuban Constitu- 
tion. The electoral law fixed December 31, 



184 



GROWTH OF THE NATION. 



1901 as the day for general elections, includ- 
ing those for governors of provinces and mem- 
bers of the House of Representatives ; and 
February 24, 1902, for the election of President, 
Vice-President and Senators. On May 20, 
1902, the United States formally transferred 
the island, and the Republic was inaugurated 
with Tomas Estrada Palma as President. 

Insular Governments.— PORTO RICO 
{capital, SAN JUAN).— The Porto Ricans wel- 
comed the flag of the United States, and re- 
sponded eagerly to the efforts made for the 
improvement of their condition. They began 
at once with intelligence and vigor to meet 
their responsibilities as citizens. A form of 
government for the island was established by 
the fifty-sixth Congress (April, 1900), providing 
for a governor and other officers of state, and 
for a Legislative Assembly composed of two 
branches — an Executive Council (or Senate), 
and a House of Delegates. The Governor and 
the Executive Council are appointed by the 
President ; the members of the House of Del- 
egates are elected by popular vote. 

The industrial energies of the people were 
greatly stimulated by the new conditions and 
opportunities. The commerce of the island 
with the United States during the second year 
of American occupation increased more than 
thirty per cent, over that of the year before. 
Unlike the other territories, Porto Rico has 
not yet a delegate in the national House of 
Representatives, but is represented at Wash- 
ington by a Resident Commissioner. 

THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO (r^//- 
tal, MANILA). — In the Philippines an insur- 
rection against the authority of the United 
States, by several thousand natives, led by 
Emilio Aguinaldo, broke out in February 
1899, and occupied a large force of American 
soldiers throughout the year. With the open- 
ing of 1900 the rebellion was practically at an 
end, though guerilla warfare continued. Agui- 
naldo was captured by a stratagem of General 
Funston, March 23, 1901. Civil government 
was established, July 4, 1901, and on July 4, 
1902, was extended to the entire archipelago. 
On the same day, President Roosevelt, for- 
mally announcing the restoration of peace, 
proclaimed a general amnesty to those 
who had been engaged in the insurrec- 
tion. 

Education is fostered zealously and wisely. 
A thousand trained teachers have been sent to 
the Islands from the United States. 

The total population is probably 9,000,000, 
and the total area about 120,000 square miles. 

GUAM {capital, AGANA).— This small island, 
the southernmost of the Ladrone group, was 
included in the cessions demanded of Spain 



because of its value as a harbor and naval 
station for American ships in the Pacific. It 
has scarcely 150 square miles of area, a small 
part of which is arable. The inhabitants, num- 
bering some nine thousand, are indolent, good- 
natured, and ignorant. The government is 
vested in the naval officer in command at the 
station. 

TUTUILA and MANUA {capital, PAGO 
PAGO).— These little islands of the Samoan 
group in the South Pacific were not taken from 
Spain, but came into possession of the United 
States in December, 1899, by tri-partite agree- 
ment with Great Britain and Germany, the 
three powers having previously exercised a 
joint protectorate over the whole group. The 
necessity for a naval station in that part of the 
world was the object of the United States in 
acquiring the islands. Pago Pago is an ideal 
harbor and is already used by the Government 
with much satisfaction. 

HAWAII {capital, HONOLULU).— While 
the war with Spain was in progress, the Ha- 
waiian islands, recently become a republic, 
sought annexation to the United States, and 
became a part of the nation August 12, 1898. 
In June, 1900, territorial government was es- 
tablished, similar to that of the Territories on 
the main-land, with a delegate in the national 
House of Representatives. The Hawaiians 
are an easy-going, peace-loving people, and 
their political affairs present no serious prob- 
lems. So readily and fully have they adopted 
the educational and religious ideas of the west- 
ern world, that it is hard to realize that the 
Sandwich Islanders were cannibals only three- 
score years ago. 

Hawaii enjoys, of course, free trade with the 
main-land. Sugar is the chief article of export 
to the United States. In 1899 the imports 
from the States amounted to $15,000,000, and 
the exports to more than $22,000,000. 

Troops Sent to China. — A terrible out- 
break in China occurred in the summer of 1900. 
It was known as the "Boxer," or anti-foreign 
movement, and itsobject was the massacre of all 
foreigners. The United States joined all the 
leading nations of the world in hurrying troops 
to China for the protection of their legations at 
Peking and their citizens in various parts of the 
Empire. Many American and English mission- 
aries were murdered, and for several weeks it 
was reported that the representatives of all gov- 
ernments at Peking, together with their families 
and friends had been tortured and slain. There 
was some desperate fighting between the in- 
surgents and the forces of the allied powers in 
the capture of Tien-sin and Peking. The up- 
rising was overcome, but the gravest questions 
of international policy remained to be settled. 



185 



1900. 



PLATE LXXIl. 




Territorial Dependexciks of the United States. 



1853-1900. 




, Engi'saud Pi's. >;.Y. 



MEXICO. 



After protracted negotiations a final protocol 
was signed at Peking, September 7, 1901, all 
the allied powers concurring, and Li Hung 
Chang signing for China. By this agreement 
the principle of the "open door" was prac- 
tically established, and also the permanent 
security of the persons and property of all 
foreigners. Other demands on China by way 
of reparation and atonement for the injuries 
suffered through her failure to prevent or put 
down the outbreak were at length agreed to, 
including the payment of an indemnity amount- 
ing to $333,900,000. 

The Presidential Election in November, 
1900, found the same republican and democratic 
candidates in the field, as in 1896. President 
McKinley was re-elected by an increased major- 
ity. He began his second term, March 4, 1901, 
under the happiest auspices, exalted in the ad- 
miration and esteem of all men above almost 
any other head of a great nation. But he 
had few remaining days. On Friday, Septem- 
ber 4th, while holding a public reception in 
the Temple of Music at the Pan-American Ex- 
position, in Buffalo, he was shot by an assas- 
sin. The President lived a little more than 



a week, and died in the early morning of Sep- 
tember 14th. On the same day a few hours 
later the Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, 
took the oath of office, and succeeded to the 
Presidency. 

THE CHIEF MAGISTRATES OF THE UNITED STATES 



Name. 


Elected from 


Term. 


Bom. 


Died. 


George Washington. 


Virginia 


1789-1797 


1733 


1799 


John Adams 


Massachusetts.. 


1797-1801 


171=; 


1826 


Thomas Jefferson . . . 


Virginia 


1801-1809 


1743 


1826 


James Madison 


Virginia 


1809-18 17 


1751 


1836 


James Monroe 


Virginia 


1817-1825 


1759 


1831 


John (^uincy Adams. 


Massachusetts.. 


1825-1829 


1767 


1848 


Andrew Jackson 


Tennessee 


1829-1837 


1767 


1845 


Martin Van Buren.. 


New York 


1837-1841 


1782 


1862 


William H. Harrison 
John Tyler 


Ohio 


March-April, 1841 
1841-1845 


1773 


1841 


Virginia 

Tennessee 


1862 


James K. Polk 


1845-1849 


179=; 


1849 


Zachary Taylor 


Louisiana 


1849-1850 


i7»4 


1850 


1 Millard Fillmore.... 


New York 


1850-1853 


i8co 


1874 


Franklin Pierce 


New Hampshire 


1853-1857 


1804 


1869 


James Buchanan. . . . 


Pennsylvania... 


1857-1861 


1791 


1868 


' Abraham Lincoln . . . 


Illinois 


1861-1865 


I8c9 


1865 


Andrew Johnson 


Tennessee 


1865-1869 


1808 


1875 


Ulysses S. Grant. . . 


Illinois 


1869-1877 


1822 


1885 


Rutherford B. Hayes 


Ohio 


1877-188 1 


1822 


1893 


. James A. Garfield .. 


Ohio 


March-Sept., 1881 


1831 


1881 


Chester A. Arthur.. . 


New York 


1881-1885 


1830 


1886 


Grover Cleveland. . . 


New York 


1885-1889 


1837 




Benjamin Harrison. . 


Indiana 


1889-1893 


1833 


1901 


Grover Cleveland. . . 


New York 


1893-1897 


1B37 




William McKinley . . 
Theodore Roosevelt . 


Ohio 


1897-1901 
1901- 


1844 
1858 


1 901 


New York 



MEXICO. 

Before the Spanish Conquest, 1521. — withdrawal of the last Spanish viceroy, Don 

What the Spanish chroniclers of the i6th cen- Juan O'Donoju, in 1821. During this period 

tury called the Empire of the Montezianas was the attitude of the natives was rather one of 

nothins: but a confederacy of three Indian sullen submission than of active resistance to 



tribes, of which the Aztecs gave the name to 
the union. It was only a feeble league, with 
easily broken bonds, surrounded by bitter hos- 



grinding oppression. 

By the Spanish Government Mexico was 
looked on merely as a vast metalliferous re- 



tile tribes ready to join the Spaniards in their gion, to be jealously guarded against foreign 

attack upon it. The stronghold of the Confed- intrusion, and worked exclusively for the ben- 

eracy was the Pueblo of Mexico, which had efit of the crown. 

been founded by the Aztecs about 1325, upon Although the natives were distributed 

an island in the midst of the largest of the among the plantations and the mines — which 

lakes of the famous Anahuac plateau. system proved fatal to the aborigines of Cuba 

To this city Cortes led his little army of and Hayti — the hardy race of the Anahuac 
hardly 600 men. They were soon joined, how- plateau successfully resisted these blighting in- 
ever, by several thousand Tlascalans, ancient fluences. Besides they derived practical ad- 
enemies of the Aztecs. At first hospitably re- vantages from contact and partial fusion with 
ceived, they were driven soon from the city by a people of higher culture, 
the Aztecs on account of their boundless rapac- Under the Spanish administration, Mexico 
ity. But Cortes once more advanced upon the or New Spain formed a viceroyalty at one 
city, which, after a long siege, fell into his time stretching from the /i'///w//.f ^/ /'i^/^tz;;/^ to 
hands. Vancouver s Island. Antonio de Mendoza, ap- 

The last native chief Guatemozin was put to pointed in 1535, was the first of 64 viceroys, 

death. The surviving natives were ordered to who ruled with almost autocratic power, but 

leave the city, which was repopulated by the hardly any of whom has left a name in his- 
tory. 

Independence. 



Spaniards and their allies. 

Mexico a Spanish Colony. 



Mexico's trade had been 
crippled ; and its offices were held by Span- 
The colonial period covers exactly 300 years iards. Napoleon I.'s summons to recognize the 
from the death of Guatemozin in 15 21 to the government of his brother Joseph was met by 

186 



MEXICO. 



the formation \A hostile Juntas, under whose 
rale Mexico learned the possibility and the ex- 
pediency of self-government. The result was 
the independence of Mexico was proclaimed 
in 182 1 by Iturbide, a descendant of the old 
Imperial House of Mexico, wiio assumed the 
crown under the title of Emperor Augustine I. 

Santa Anna. — A republican rising over- 
threw him, and Santa Anna proclaimed the 
Republic at Vera Cruz in 1823. Iturbide had 
to flee to Europe, and on his return in 1824 
was shot. A Federal Republic was now or- 
ganized, with a constitution based on that of 
the United States. For the next thirty years 
Santa Anna, a tall, thin man, with sun-browned 
face, is the prominent figure in Mexican 
politics. His popularity ebbed and flowed 
with the exigencies of the time. He repelled 
an invasion by Spain and an invasion by 
France, and these triumphs raised him to the 
highest pinnacle of public favor. Then his 
power decayed and he was forced to flee from 
his country. But when Mexico was threatened 
with new dangers he was recalled from his 
banishment and placed in supreme command. 
His public life was closed by a hasty flight to 
Havana. Throughout his whole career his 
principal support had been the clergy. 

Clericals and Liberals. — The Mexican 
clergy were possessed of vast wealth and in- 
fluence. Fully one-half the land of the 
country belonged to them, and a large portion 
of the remainder was mortgaged to them. 
Their spiritual prerogatives were held to ex- 
empt them from taxation, and thus the whole 
weight of the national burden fell upon the 
smaller division of the national property. It 
was the concern of this powerful interest to 
maintain its own privileges, and to repress 
the growth of liberal sentiments among the 
people. But in the course of years the grow- 
ing demand for reform overcame the priestly 
defence of their privileges and the Mexicans 
took a large step toward the vindication of 
their liberties. The leader in this revolution 
was Benito Juarez, a Toltec Indian, whose 
personal ability and skill in the management 
of affairs gained for him the opportunity of 
conferring upon Mexico the fullest measure 
of political liberty which she had ever re- 
ceived. The Liberals were now a majority in 
Congress. One of their first acts was to de- 
clare the subjection of the clergy to civil law. 
Two years later came tiie abolition of clerical 
privileges, liberty of religion, a free press, and 
the opening of the country to immigration. 
The Clerical party rose in civil war to crush 
this aggressive liberalism. Juarez and his 
Government were driven for a time from the 
capital, and withdrew to Vera Cruz, from 



whence he promulgated his Laws of Reform : 
Suppression of the monastic orders ; estab- 
lishment of civil marriage and confiscation of 
the church lands. Next year the Liberals 
triumphed over their enemies, and the Govern- 
ment returned to the capital. The leading 
Clericals were exiled, who sought and found a 
refuge at the Court of Napoleon III. 

Here, out of revenge, they induced Napo- 
leon to demand from Juarez, under pain of in- 
stant war, the payment of the debts contracted 
by the previous administration. 

THE NAPOLEONIC DESIGNS. 

Bankruptcy. — Mexico had been for many 
years a heavy borrower in the European mar- 
kets. On the verge of bankruptcy, she had en- 
tered into arrangements to pay off her debts 
by mortgaging some of her revenues. But in 
July, i86i, the Mexican Government and Con- 
gress, driven by dire necessity, adopted a reso- 
lution taking the whole product of the Mexican 
revenues into their own hands and suspending 
all payments to foreign claimants. It was 
this step which enabled the Clerical refugees 
to induce Napoleon to ask England and Spain 
to interfere. 

The French Claims. — Had Mexico had 
only England to deal with, the matter would 
probably have been settled. But France, al- 
though her claims were of a peculiar nature, 
and trifling compared with those of England, 
was only too glad to have a pretext to carry 
out her ulterior designs. When the Miramon 
Government were gradually losing their hold 
on the country and totally penniless, the Swiss 
house of Jecker & Co., in Mexico, lent them 
$750,000 and received, in return for the ad- 
vance, bonds to be payable at some future 
period to the amount of ^15,000,000. Shortly 
after this outrageous proceeding, Miramon 
was upset, and succeeded by his rival Juarez, 
who was then called on by Jecker, who was 
under French protection, to pay the above- 
named sum, on the plea that one Government 
must be held responsible for the acts and ob- 
ligations of the other. Juarez refused to do 
so, and in this resolution was supported by 
the opinion of all impartial people. 

Ulterior Designs of France. — From the 
Mexican exiles in Paris, Napoleon learned that 
attempts had been made by some Confeder- 
ate statesmen to come to an understanding 
with the Liberal party in Mexico, with a view 
to a political union, the result of which was 
to be a grand empire encircling the gulf of 
Mexico. 

The Mexican exiles, who belonged to the 
Clerical party, saw in the success of this scheme 
the utter downfall of their party and the an- 



187 



MEXICO. 



nihilation of all their hopes. They proposed 
to Napoleon, in order to prevent this union, 
to establish a French protectorate over Mex- 
ico. 

Just at that time (July, 1861) the action of the 
Mexican Government (the above-mentioned 
suspension of payments to foreign claimants) 
gave Napoleon a pretext to interfere in the 
affairs of the Republic. 

Ever since the peace of Villafranca he had 
been desirous to conciliate Austria. He per- 
ceived with satisfaction that an opportunity 
had now arrived for carrying out his friendly 
intentions toward the house of Austria. The 
plan was : 

1. To consider the Mexican exiles in Paris 
as the true representatives of the Mexican na- 
tion and promise them his protection. 

2. To encourage tlie Confederates in the 
United States, with the view of neutralizing 
the power of the Union. 

3. To overthrow, by a military expedition, 
the existing government of Juarez in Mexico. 

4. To establish, by French arms, an empire, 
and offer its crown to the Austrian Archduke 
Maximilian, brother of the Emperor of Aus- 
tria. 

Napoleon was now determined, of course, 
that under no circumstances should any com- 
promise or accommodation of any sort take 
place. The grand object was to get into mo- 
tion an expedition of some kind. Once in 
Mexico, the rest would follow. England and 
Spain were invited to join France in an expe- 
dition to Mexico for the enforcing of the 
claims of the foreign creditors. 

The London Convention. — Early in the 
progress of the negotiations for an allied expe- 
dition to Mexico suspicions began to be felt by 
England that advantage would be taken of 
this expedition to interfere in the internal 
affairs of Mexico and convert the Republic 
into a monarchy. England, unfortunately, 
suspected the wrong party — Spain, whose 
former relations with Mexico suggested it. 

But Spain solemnly declared that it had no 
views of conquest upon Mexico. 

The French Government did even more than 
this It disclaimed all notion on its own part 
of forcible interference. England was satis- 
fied, and on November 20, 1861, a convention 
was signed in London between France, Eng- 
land, and Spain, by which it was agreed that 
a joint force should be sent by the three allies 
to Mexico ; that no special advantages should 
be sought for by them individually ; that no 
internal influence on Mexico should be ex- 
erted ; and that a commission should be des- 
ignated to distribute the indemnity they pro- 
posed to exact. 



The Allied Expedition. — When the expe- 
dition reached Vera Cruz, about the end of 
1861, the English and Spanish commissioners 
proposed that the Mexican Government should 
be called upon at once to pay up or guarantee 
all fair claims which should be certified by a 
commission, and to make reparation for out- 
rages. The French commissioners proposed 
to claim Ji 2,000,000 without details or items, 
besides the f 15,000,000 of the Jecker transac- 
tion. 

The English commissioner (Sir Charles 
Wyke) complained that the French demand 
could only lead to war, as no nation could be 
expected to accede to it. But there arose even 
more serious differences than these. 

Suddenly there appeared in the French camp, 
under French protection, the exiled Clericals. 
They scattered broadcast proclamations an- 
nouncing that they had come, by order of Na- 
poleon, to found a Mexican empire. The Eng- 
lish and Spanish commissioners declared this 
action of the French a violation of the London 
Convention, and withdrew, with their contin- 
gents. 

The French Conquest of Mexico. — Im- 
mediately after the break-up of the alliance, 
the French commenced their march on Mex- 
ico. But (May 5, 1862) the Mexican general, 
Zarogoza, drove them back from Puebla with 
terrible slaughter. Then Napoleon saw that 
the struggle was to be a reality, and made ar- 
rangements accordingly. In September Gen- 
eral Forey, with 2,500 men, landed at Vera 
Cruz. Pueblo was taken (May 18, 1863) after 
a most obstinate defence. This capture broke 
the heart of the Mexican resistance, and the 
French entered the city of Mexico (June 10, 
1863). 

THE MEXICAN EMPIRE. 

Erection of the Empire. — General Forey 
had appointed a junta of thirty-five notables, 
charged to elect a triumvirate, which, in its 
turn, had to convoke an assembly of 215 mem- 
bers to determine the form of government. 
This assembly decided (July 7th) that Mexico 
should become an empire, and offered the 
crown to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, 
who accepted it about a year later (April 10, 
1864). Before Maximilian started for his em- 
pire, he had concluded a treaty with Napo- 
leon, by virtue of which the French army 
should be gradually reduced, while Mexico 
was to repay to France her expenses. 

On April 13th, Maximilian and his wife 
Carlotta quitted the soil of Austria ; on May 
28th they cast anchor in the harbor of Vera 
Cruz ; and on June 12, 1864, they entered the 
City of Mexico. 



188 



MEXICO. 



Juarez and his Government withdrew, to I 
maintain a patriot war in which the mass of j 
the people zealously upheld them. Maximil-! 
ian sat upon his throne without support, ex- 
cepting that which the Clerical party of Mex- 
ico and the bayonets of France supplied, while 
the Juarists increased in strength and flooded 
the country with guerilla bands. 

In consequence of the increased activity of 
these guerillas, Bazaine, Forey's successor, in- 
duced Maximilian to sign an order to treat all 
guerilla bands as brigands, and apply to them 
the utmost rigor of the law (October 3, 1865). 
He did not foresee that in putting his hand 
to this order, he was signing his own death- 
warrant. 

The Withdrawal of the French.— A few 
years earlier or later these things dared not 
have been done, but when the French troops 
entered Mexican territory, the United States 
waged, not yet with clear prospect of success, 
a struggle on the results of which depended 
their own existence as a nation. They had 
no thoughts to give to the concerns of other 
American states, and they wisely suffered the 
Empire of Mexico to run its sad and foolish 
course. But now the Civil War was ended, 
and the Government at Washington, having at 
its call a million of veteran soldiers, intimated 
to Napoleon that the further stay of his troops 
on the American continent had become im- 
possible. 

Napoleon was only waiting an occasion to 
withdraw his stake, and this hint from Wash- 
ington furnished him the wished-for oppor- 
tunity. Maximilian, who fully understood by 
this time the true condition of Mexico, and 
foresaw" all the dangers of his position when 
the French troops should be withdrawn, sent 
Carlotta at this crisis to Europe to represent 
the condition of things to Napoleon. Though 
denied access, she forced her way into his 
presence, and in her frantic grief upbraided 
herself before him, that, in accepting a throne 
from his hand, she had forgotten that she was 
a daughter of the race of Orleans. 

Meantime matters in Mexico grew worse 
every day. Bazaine and his forces had aban- 
doned the cause of Maximilian. Prior to their 
withdrawal, the French Government made sev- 



eral efforts to induce Maximilian to abdicate. 
" 1 know all the difficulties before me," he 
replied, '* but I shall not give up my post " 
(November 8, 1866). Nevertheless, Maximil- 
ian, after he had received the news of his 
wife's insanity, made up his mind not to re- 
main long in Mexico. But his generals gath- 
ered round him, and persuaded him to remain, 
promising him the support of men and money 
(December i, 1866). 

Fall of the Empire. — The departure of the 
French troops (February 7, 1867) left the way 
clear for the Liberal party. It rapidly gained 
strength and prepared to besiege Maximilian 
in the capital. 

In order not to expose the City of Mexico 
to the horrors of a siege, he retired to Quere- 
taro, where General Miramon had gathered 
together a little army of about eight thousand 
men. Here they were besieged by the Liberals 
under Escobedo, who, by Lopez's treason, en- 
tered the town. May 15, 1867. Maximilian 
was taken prisoner, and placed before a court- 
martial. He was accused of usurpation, of 
instigating and exciting civil war, and of 
causing the death of forty thousand patriots, 
hanged and shot in consequence of his order 
of October 3, 1865. 

Condemned to be shot, he was executed 
June 19, 1866, at Queretaro. (Plate LXIX.) 

Since these disorders, ending with the death 
of Maximilian, Mexico has turned to peaceful 
ways, and the city of Mexico has become a 
great centre of civilizing influences for the sur- 
rounding semi-barbarous tribes. Since 1869 
the Liberal party has succeeded in preserving 
peace both at home and abroad, while estab- 
lishing democratic institutions on a firm basis. 
For the first time in its chequered history 
Mexico may look forward, with some confi- 
dence, to a bright future. 

The plague spot is the uncivilized Indian 
element, which embraces more than half of the 
population. 

But with boundless natural resources at its 
disposal, an administration like that of the cau- 
tious Porfirio Diaz (re-elected for the ////r^/zW 
July 15, 1896) may hope to overcome that dif- 
ficulty, and gradually to effect a complete fu- 
sion of the antagonistic racial elements. 



SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 



The States of South America, settled in the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, have passed 
through many revolutions in their struggles for 
deliverance from Spain. The Argentine Re- 
public, including Bolivia, established its inde- 
pendence in 1810. Chile, Venezuela, Ecuador, 
and New Granada achieved their liberty in the 
next ten years. Peru won freedom in 1824 and 



Brazil became a republic in 1898. The most of 
these states have grown rapidly in commercial 
importance and political dignity. 

The little republics of Central America have 
been extremely unstable politically, and are 
noted chiefly for their valuable exports of fine 
hard woods, dye stuffs, and medicinal roots and 
barks. 



189 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, 



It is impossible as yet to review the Nine- supernatural world of electricity, which has 



teenth Century as a whole in the way we can 
regard the Eighteenth Century. It will not 



already brought all civilized spots of earth 
within actual speaking distance of each other 



be until time allows us to see the century in which has turned night into day, which has 
long perspective that we can safely define cer- given to mechanics a power subtle and effect- 
tain of the characteristics which will unques- ual beyond men's most fanciful dreams of pos- 
tionably differentiate it from its predecessors, sibility. 

Tlie events of the first years of the Twentieth j The properties of light have disclosed them- 
Century alone can determine whether certain | selves in photography, which has further called 
tendencies apparent in the latter quarter of electricity to its aid for pictures of actual 
the Nineteenth Century are to prevail as sig- movement, and for sight through solid and 
nificant and achieving movements, or are to opaque bodies. Medical science has during 
transpire to have been arrested currents. the hundred years taken such leaps that the 

Political rivalries between nations have been devoted and laborious practitioner of other 
largely supplanted by commercial competi- times seems, in comparison, like a barbarian. 



tions. Side by side with these demands for na- 
tional business enlargement, has been growing 
a sense of human fraternity and mutual com- 
prehension. Both forces have had a marked 
development during the last quarter of the cen- 
tury. But only subsequent events can indicate 
which is the dominant historical note of these 
latter years. 

Again, there has been, during the last quar- 
ter of the century, a signal extension of social- 
istic sentiment, not alone among the laborers, 
but, in a large variety of gradations, among 
the more well-to-do thinking classes. Along 
with that is also evident a strong reaction 
toward individualism in commerce and indus- 
try. The events of the next few years may 
prove which of these sentiments has been tiie 
deep, characteristic current, and which the 
eddy. 

There are other notes, however, which be- 
yond question belong to the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury. 

On the material side, its inventions and 
scientific discoveries have distanced, both in 
number and magnitude of importance, those 
of any other century. It has produced the 
locomotive, and the rapid traffic by land which 
makes great nations as closely knit in com- 
merce and industry as counties were in the 
preceding ages. It has made the steamboat, 
which turned the vast and dubious oceans into 
unbarred roadways for travel and trade. It 
introduced mankind to the new and almost 



The application of anaesthetics has relieved 
surgery of its deadly torture. The discovery 
of the germ-principle has put medicine on an 
absolutely sure scientific basis, and has given 
the surgeon a thousand-fold greater power of 
saving life than of old. 

If literature and art have not added new 
giants to the few ancient masters, the century 
has produced a multitude of creative writers 
and inspired artists of the second rank, and 
unnumbered swarms of minds and hands that 
have at least done creditable work. It has 
been the century of popular education, and 
the valleys of humanity have been lifted for 
the first time to a noble plain. 

This century has been the age of vast prac- 
tical reforms. It has seen slavery wholly abol- 
ished throughout the civilized world. It has 
witnessed the steady and unretreating rise of 
democracy against the government of the priv- 
ileged classes. It has seen the people's in- 
trepid battle against the corruptions in their 
own democracy. 

Philanthropy has, during this century, be- 
come for the first time in history an organized 
science, and with its gain in effectiveness it 
has gained more in breadth, and still more in 
devotion. If, in some quarters, religion is less 
marked as a passion for theologic beliefs, it is 
the more disseminated as an altruism. The 
sufferings of others excite a most marked 
sympathy, and a determined will for relief, 
and they also stimulate an intelligent efficiency 



190 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



of method which is a distinguishing mark of 
the present age above all that have gone before. 

In the movement of nations among them- 
selves, in the change of national boundaries, 
and in the growths of new powers, the century 
presents an extraordinary spectacle. 

At its beginning the world-powers were 
Great Britain and Spain. The British sphere 
was on all seas, and her great colonies were at 
the most strategic points of the earth. Spain 
possessed nearly all of the Western Hemi- 
sphere south of the State of Georgia and west 
of the Allegheny Mountains. Suddenly France 
sprung from her Revolution into a competi- 
tion for the world leadership. She absorbed 
from Spain a vast wedge in the middle of what 
is now the territory of the United States, and 
though she quickly parted with it to the young 
Western Republic, she maintained for a dozen 
years a bloody and imperial primacy of Eu- 
rope. Soon following the fall of French im- 
perialism, in 1815, began the disintegration of 
the superb Spanish empire by a series of re- 
volts and the upbuilding of new American 
nationalities, which continued until the end of 
the century sees the decrepit and corrupt 
power of Spain banished from the Western 
Hemisphere and the islands of the Pacific. 

On the other hand, three new powers have, 
during the century, arisen in Europe as bal- 
ancing and dominant factors. A united Italy 
has made the peoples of the old Roman penin- 
sula into a new nation. A united Germany, en- 
larging by reprisals from Austria and France, 
has made the Fatherland a nation of iron. A 
centralized Russia, silently strengthening, has 
entered the camp-grounds of Europe as a full 
equal and a possible superior. The French Re- 
public, singly, is at a disadvantage as against 
the military power of either Russia, Germany, 
or Great Britain. But, by strange and un- 
natural alliances of temporary expediency, the 
balance of continental power has been pre- 
served and the dreaded clash of arms between 
the great nations averted for a quarter of a 
century. Russia's war upon Turkey, and Tur- 
key's victory over Greece have not been suf- 
fered to break the calm in Eastern Europe 



which the great nations maintain with an un- 
precedented solicitude and fear. 

But outside of Europe itself the great na- 
tions have extended their empires with perilous 
impetuousness. Africa, opened by adventu- 
rers and missionaries, has been parcelled out 
in commercial possessions among the leading 
powers ; and Great Britain's sanguinary strug- 
gle for supremacy in South Africa closed the 
century's final year. Following Japan's vic- 
tory over China, the footholds which the great 
European nations had previously gained are 
stretching into partitions of the Yellow Em- 
pire. The unchecked uprising of the Chinese 
people against the missionaries and the em- 
bassies of the Christian nations, with the swift 
and terrible punishment that followed makes 
China a vassal to the civilized world, but with 
a reserved explosiveness which is certain to 
make large avenues in the history of the Twen- 
tieth Century. Notwithstanding the rapid' 
growth of the new powers. Great Britain, by 
her matchless sea force and by her good sense, 
still holds the primacy of the world empire. 

Without iorelgn alliances, with wide-open 
hospitality to the emigrants of Europe, and 
with a gradual extension of national domain 
from the Allegheny Mountains to the Pacific, 
to Alaska, and to islands of the tropic seas, 
the United States has presented the most 
marvellous political spectacle of the century. 
Beginning as an infant Republic, with scat- 
tered and sparse population ; absorbing into 
itself varied types of foreign life ; fighting 
wars without and a most desperate war within ; 
welding itself into an indivisible Nation with 
a passionate patriotism ; a shrewd commercial 
people, yet self-purifying and right-hearted ; 
peace- lovers above all men, yet chivalrous for 
the oppressed to the extent of battle ; of rest- 
less energy and aggressiveness, even opening to 
woman every field of business effort ; of untold 
ingenuity and resource, yet conservative in 
temper ; the Republic of the West, believing 
itself to be bearing the happiness of mankind 
in its own march of faith and progress, is the 
crowning creation of the Nineteenth Century. 
— The Publishers. 



191 



GENEALOGIES. 



I. — The Temenid^ and Antigonid^ of Ma- 
cedonia, AND THE LaGID^ OF EGYPT. 

II. — The Julian House. 
III. — The House of Severus. 
IV. — The House of Constantine. 
V. — The House of Theodosius. 
VI. —Mohammedan Dynasties and Ottoman 

Sovereigns. 
VII. — Merovingians. 
VIII. — Carlovingians. 
IX. — Saxon and Salian Emperors. 
X. — The House of Luxemburg. 
XI. — Guelphs and Hohenstaufen. 
XII. — Valesian Kings of France and the 

Houses of Sforza and Aragon, 
XIII. — The Cleves-Juliers Succession. 
XIV. — Burgundy. 



XV. 

XV. A. 

XVI. 

XVIL 

XVIIL 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXL 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 



—The House of Wettin. 

—The Spanish Succession. 

—The House of Wittelsbach. 

—The House of Oldenburg. 

—The House of Lorraine and the Guises. 

—Ancestors and Descendants of Charles 

V. AND Ferdinand I. 
— The House of Hohenzollern. 
— The House of Cerdic. 
—The House of Godwin. 
—The French Succession in 1327. 
—The House of Tudor. 
—The English Sovereigns. 
—The Rulers of France. 
—The House of Savoy. 
—The House of Romanoff. 
—The House of Bourbon. 



193 



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II.— THE JULIAN HOUSE. 



Emperors. Caius Julius Caesar. 

I 



I I 

Caius Julius Caesar. Julia = Caius Marius, t 86 B.C. 

I I 

I I I 

C. Julius Caerar. Julia. The younger Marius, t 82 B.C. 

t 44 B.C. I 

Atia = Octavius. 

Scribonia = Augustus, t 14 = Livia, t 29 = Tib. Claudius Nero. 
I I. I 

Agrippa, t 12 = Julia, t 14 = Tiberius, t 37. Drusus, t 9 B.C. 

I if ^ 

I I 

Agrippina, t 33 = Gerraan:cus, t 19. 



Caius Caligula, t 41. Cn. Domitius = Agrippina, t 59 = Claudius, t 54 = Messalina. 

IIL I IV. I 

Nero, t Britannicus, t 

v.^esT' 55. 



III.— THE HOUSE OF SEVERUS, 193-235, A.D. 

Emperors. Bassianus. 



L. Septimius Severus, 211 = Julia Domna. Julia Moesa = Julius Avitus. 

" I I 

I I - I I 

Caracalla. Geta, Sextus Varius Marcellus = Julia Soaemias. Julia Mammaea = Gessius Marciani 

217. 212- 

Alexander Severus, 

235. 



IV.— THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 



Helena = Constantius Chlorus, t 3C6 = Theodora. 

I I 



I I I 

Conetantine the Great, t 337. Con8tantia=Licinius, d. 324. Constantius, d. 337=BaBilina. 

\ L 

III I I I I 

Julian the Apostate, = Helena. Constantine II., Constantius II., Constans, Constantia = Gallus. Julian the Apostate, 

d. 363. d. 340. d. 361. d.350. d. 363. 



v.— THE HOUSE OF THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 

Western Emperors. Theodosius. 
Eastern Emperors. I 



I I 

Theodosius the Great, t 395. Honorius, t 384. 

i I 

I Stilicho, t 408 = Serena. 

I 



I I I 

Constantius, t 421 = Placidia, t 450. Arcadius, t 408. Honorius, t 423 = Maria 



I ] TheodosiusII., 1 450. Pulcheria = Marcianus, 1 457. 

Genseric. Honoria, t 434. Valentinian,III., + 455. = Eudoxia = Petronius Maximus. 

I , =■= ^, " 

Hunneric :=:^:^:^ Eudoxia = Palladius, Placidia = Olybrius, t 472. 

j son of Petronius Maximus. 

Ilderic. 



yi.— THE PRINCIPAL MOHAMMEDAN DYNASTIES. 



About A.D. 400 we find the Banu Kinana settled around the Kaba, the sanctuary of a number of confederate tribes belonging to that 
district. The Koraish were that branch of the Kinana who had settled in Mecca. One of their subdivisions was the Koszai, who formed a 
union of many clans, among them the Abd Menaf. Their most important families were the Hashims and Abdshams. 



Hashim Family. 

I 

Abd-el-Mutallib. 



Abdsham Family. 

I 



Abu-1-Asz. 
I 



Amina = Abdallah. 



I 
Abu Taleb. 



570, Mohammed = Khadija. 
I b. fi32. 



Fatiraa ^= Ali, G61. 



I I 
Hassan, Hosain, 680. 
669. I 

Ishmael, 762. Abul Abba; 
754. 



Abbas. 

I 
Abdallah. 



Ali 



Mohammed. 

L 

I 



Afifan. 

I 
Othman. 

656. 



Hakam. 
Merwan I., 685. 



I 
Omayya. 



Harb. 
Abu Sofyan. 



I I 

Abd-Almelik, 705. Abd-Alaziz. 



Welid I., Soliman, Jezid II., Hisham, Omar II., 



Almansor, 

d. 775. 

I 

Mahdi, 785. 

I 



d. 715. 
Jezid III., 



724. 



d. 743. iki). 

I 



Obaidallah, 930. 



Kajim. 

Almansor. 

I 

Muiz, 975. 

{•ounder of the Fatimite 

Caliphate in Egypt ; 

it lasted 969-1171. 



Haroun-al-Rashid, 809. 

His descendants are Aba?side 

Caliphs of Bagdad until 1285 A.D. 

OTTOMAN SOVEREIGNS, 

1299-1902. 

Ertoghrul, 12S0. 
1 1299 Emir Osman, 1326. 



Moawyiah. 
I 

Abd-Errhainan I., 788. 

Hisham, 796. 

Chacam I., 821. 

Abd-F.rrhaman II., 852. 

Mohammed, 886. 

T""" 

1 



I ■ I 

Mohammed. Moawyiah I., 680. 

I -^ 

Merwan II., Jezid I., 683. 



Moawyiah II., 

— m — 



Explanation. 

Orthodox Caliphs , 

Ommiades ^^b^^bb, 
Abassidea s.^-v.^-^^^,/^-, 

Emirs of Cordova . 

Dates after a name indicate the 
year of death, if under a name 
that he died without posterity. 



Mondhir, 



Abdallah, 912. 

I 

Mo'iammed. 



2 Emir 

Orchan, 1350. 

I 



I 
Alaeddin 
the Lawgiver. 



Abd-Errhaman III., 961. 
Founder of the Caliphate of Cordova, 
which lasted 929-1031. 



Soliman, 
1358. 



3 Emir Murad I., 1389, or Amurath. 

4 Sultan Bajazeth I., 1402. 

5 Since 1413, Sultan Mohammed I., 1421. 

6 Sultan Murad II., 1451. 

7 Sultan Mohammed II., 1481. 

8 Sultan Bajazeth II., 1512. 

9 Caliph and Sultan Selim I., 1520. (All his successors are Caliphs and Sultans.) 

10 Soliman I., 1566. 

11 Selim II., 1574. 

12 Murad III., 1595. 

13 Mohammed III., 1603. 
I 



14 Ahmed I. 
I 



161^ 



15 Mustapha I. 
1623. 



16 Osman II., 



17 Murad IV, 
1640. 



18 Ibrahim I.. 1640. 



19 Mohammed IV., 1687. 

I 



20 Soliman II. 
1691. 



21 Ahmed II., 
1695. 



I 
92 Mustapha II., 1703. 



Ahmed III., 1730. 



24 Mahmoud I. 
1754. 



25 Osman III., 
1757. 



31 Abd-ul-Mejid, 1S61. 
I 



26 Mustapha III., 1773. 27 Hamid I., n 



28 Selim III., 
1807. 



29 Mustapha IV., 

1S08. 



33 Murad V., deposed 1876. 



34 Abd-ul-Hamid II., b. 1842, 

I 



1870, Moharaed Selim. 1878, Abd-ul-Kadir. 1878. Ahmed. 1 SS5,0Mohamed. 



30 Mahmoud II., 1839. 



Abd-ul-Aziz, 187 



1857, Youssouff Izzeddin. 



Vn.— GENEALOGY OF THE MEROVINGIANS. 

Childeric I., 458-481. 

Clovis I., t 511 = Clotilda of Burgundy. 



Tbeoderic I., t 534. 



Chlotar I., t 561. 



Chlodomer, t 524. 



Childebert I., i 568. 



Theodebert I., t 548. Sigebt rt I., t 575. 

I I 

Theodebalt, t 555. Childebert II., + 596. 



I : 

Chilperic I., t 5S4. Charibert, 1 567. 

I 
Chlotar XL, t 628. 

I 



Gontran, t 593. 



Theodebert II.. t 612. Theoderic II., t 613. 



I I 

Dagobert I., + 638. Charibert II., 1 636. 

I 



Sigebert II., + 613. 



I 
Sigebert III., t 656. 



I 
Clovis II., 656. 

\_ 

I 



Dagobert II., t 678. Chlotar III., t 670. Childeric II., + 673. Theoderic III., t 691. 

I \ 

Chlotar T., 561, S. King of the Franks. ^.^^^.^^^^^ ji^ ^ ^20. Clovis lA., 695. Childebert III., t 711. 

I 



Athanagild, King of the Visi-Goths, 
d. 567. 

I 
I 



I 
Blithilde = Ansbert, 

Arnold. 

I 

St. Arnolf, t 640. 



Ansgies. 

I 



Childeric III., t 752. Dagobert III., 715. Pepin of Heristal, 1 714. 

Deposed by Pepin the Short, who „,, , I ,„ . -.«_ „. . . . I 



was crowned an anointed Kivg of the Theoderic IV., t 737. Charles Martel, t 741 

FrankH, 752. No Ki7ig of the Frarika j^^ p ' j^ . «go 
Sigebert I., = Brunehilda, Gaileswintha=Chilperic I.,=Fredegonda, between 737 and 743. | ' 

d. 575. d. 613. d. 584, d. 597. Charlemagne. 

Aing of King of Neustria. 

Austrasia. 



Vm.— GENEALOGY OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

Pepin of Heristal, 714. 

Charles Martel, 741. 

King Pepin the Short, 768. 

Charlemagne, 814. 

i 
Louis the Pious, 840. 

\ 



Emperor Lothar I., 855. 

I 



Louis the German, 876. 



Louis II., 875. Lothar II., Charles, Carloman, 880. Louis III., Charles the Fat., 
I 869. 863. 1 882. 888. 



Charles the Bald, 877, 



Louis II., 879. 

I 



Hermingarde = Boso I. of Provence 887. Arnolf, 899. 

I I 

Emperor Louis, Louis the Child, 

905. 911. 

Last of the race of Last of the German 

Emperor Lothar. Carlovingians. 



I II 

Louis III., Carloman, Charles the Simple, 929. 
882. 884. I 

Louis IV., 954, Outremar. 



Lothar, 986. 



Louis v., 
987. 



Charley, 994. 

I 

I 
Otto, 
1003. 



Louis. 



IX.— GENEALOGY OF THE SAXON AND THE FRANCONIAN OR SALIAN EMPERORS. 

German kings ^-^~-^^^, emperors — 



The numbers denote the succession : 2-6 the Saxon line, 7-10 the Salic line. 
Otto the Saxon = Hedwig, daughter of Louis the German. 



Conrad the Franconian. 

I 

I I 

1 Conrad T., 918. Werner. 



2Heiiry the Fowler, 936. 

" T 



3 Otto the Great, 973. 



Conrad = Luitgarde. 

I 
Otto. 

I 

Henry. 

I 

7 Conrad II., 1039. 

I 

8 Henry III.. 1056. 

I 

9 Henry IV., 1106. 



I 
4 Otto II.. 987. 



5 Otto III. 



1002. 



Henry. 



Heni-y. 

I 
Henry II., 

1024. 



10 He nry V. 
1125. 



X— GENEAX-OGY OF THE HOUSE OF LUXEMBUKG AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 

The four Luxemburg Emperors marked -../-^^~~. 



Bmp. Rudolf of Habsburg, 1291. 
I 
Emp. Albert T., 1308. 



Wenceslaus of Bohemia, 1253. 
Ottocar, 1278. 
Wenceslaus II., 1305. 



Albert II., 1358. 



Wenceslaus III., 
1306. 



1 
Elizabeth 



Leopol'l, 138fi. Albert III., 1395. 



Emp. Charles IV., 1378. 



Henry of Luxemburg, 1281. 
I 
• Henry II., 1288. 

Emp. Henry VII., 1313. 



John, Ich dien, 1.346. 



Ernst, 1424. 

Emp. Frederick 
III, 1493. 

I 
Emp. Maximilian I., 1509, 

Philip, 1506. 
Bmp. Ferdinand I., 1564 : 



111 I 

Albert IV., 1404. Emp. Wenceslaus, Emp. Rigisraund, 1437. John, 1396. 

I 1419. I I 

Emp. Albert II. =^=^===^^=^ Elizabeth. Elizabeth, 

(V.), 1439 I 1451. 



John Henry, 1366. Wenceslaus, 
__J 1383. 

I I 

Jobst of Moravia, Procopiua, 
1411. 1405. 



Ladislaus, 
1457 



I 
Anne = Casimir IV. of Poland, 1492. 



Wladislaus II. of Hungary, 1516. 

I 



See Genealogy XI I. 



Anne. 



I 

Louis of Hungary, 
1526. 



XI.— GENEALOGY OF THE GUELPHS AND HOHENSTAUFEN. 



Explanation. — Year after name, date of death ; Year under a name, died without issue ; Guelphs 



; Hohenstaufen, 



The num- 



bers denote the succession ; 12-18 Hohenstaufen Emperors. Not connected with the Dynasty of the Hohenstaufen are : 16, Otto IV. 
Emp. in 1209 ; 19, William of Holland, 1247-1256 ; 20, Richard of Cornwallis ; 1257-1271. 



Marq. of Misnia. 

I 



Egbert. Gertrude = Henry of Nordheim. 
Richenza =^zz:^:^n=r= 



Guelph II., Puke of Lower Bavaria, 1048. 

Marq. of Este = Cunegunde. Henry III., 1056. Frederick. 

Ct. of Supplinburg. Guelph IV., 1101. Henry IV.. 1106. Frederick of Buren, 1094. 



Gertrude 



I I III 

11 Lothar the Henry the Black, 1127. Henrv V., Agnes = Frederick of Hohen- 
Saxon, 1137. — j 1125. I staufen, 1105. 



Henry the Proud, 1139. Judith 



Frederick, 1147. 12 Conrad III., 1152. 



Henry the Lion, 1195. Roger I., 1149. 



13 Frederick Barbarossa, 1190. Henry, Frederick, 
I I \ 11.50. 1 167^^^ 

I I I I I I 

William, 1213. Constance = 14 Henry VI., 1197. Frederick, 15 Philip, 1208. Otto, Pala- 

I I ~^ "^Tl9lP — '-^^'-'v, ^j^g q£ g^j. 

I 1 ' gundy (see 

Otto the Child, 1252. 17 Frederick II-., 1250. Gen. XIV.). 

I """"^n"^""^"^ Peter II. of Aragon, 1213. 

Albert I., 1279. Henry, 18 Conrad IV., 1254. Enzjo, Manfred, 1266. James the Conqueror. 

I 1242. I *"T272i i I 

Albert IT., 1318. Corradino, Constance = Peter III., 1285. 

James II., King of Sicily, 1285-1295. 



Lineal ancestor of Queen Victoria. 



Xn— GENEALOGY SHOWING THE KELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VALESIAN KINGS 
OF FKANCE AND THE HOUSES OF THE VISCONTL SFORZA, AND ARAGON. 



Louis VIII., 12^6. 

I 

(St.) Louis IX., 1270. 



Uberto Visconti {Vice- Comes.) 

I 

Obizzo. 

I 

Theobald, 1276. 



Denotes bastard descent. 



Philip III., 1285. 
Charles de Valois, 1325. Matthew, Imperial Vicar, 1322, 



Philip VI., 1350. 

I 

John, 1364. 

I 



Stephen, 1327. 
Goleazzo, 1378. 

I 



Charles V., 1380. Isabella - Gian Galeazzo, First Duke of Milan in 1395. Died, 1402. 

I I 

I 



Ferdinand King of Aragon and Sicily, 1479. 



Charles VI., 1422. Orleans = Valentina. Gian Maria, Philip Maria, 1447. Attendolo Sforza, 1424. Alfonso. 1458. Juan, II. 

I 1412. I ; ■ I 



Charles VII., 1461. Orleans. AngouK-me, 1467. Bianca Maria = Francesco Sforza, 1465. 



Ferdinand I., 1494. Ferdinand the 

I Catholic, 1516. 



I ' I I I i II 

Louis XI., 1483. Louis XIL, Charles. Card. Ascanio, Ludovico II Moro, 1508. Galeazzo Maria, 1476. Alfonso II., 1495. Frederick, 1504. 

I 1512. I 1505. |__ I I j 

I ! I I I I I I 

Charles VIII., Francis I., 1547. Max, Francis Maria, Gian Galeazzo Maria, 1494 = Isabella. Ferdinand II., Ferdinand, 

1498. I 1530. 1535. I 1496. 1559. 

James V. of Scotland. Henry II., 1559. Francis, 

I J 1511^ 

III! I I 

Mary Stuart = Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., Francis of Aleufon, Duke of Brabant since 1581, Margaret = Henry IV. First 

1560. 1574. 1589. 1584. Bourbon King of 

France, 



Xm.— GENEALOGY SHOWING THE FORMATION AND DIVISION OF THE CLEVES- 

JULIERS INHERITANCE. 



Cleves. 



Dietrich VIIL, 1347. 



Margaret 



Mark. 



Adolf II. 



Adolf III., 1394. 



Frederick I., Elector of Saxony. Adolf IV., 1448. 



Frederick II., 1464. 
I 
Ernst, 1486. 

I 
John, 1532. 



John I., 1481. 

i 
John II., 1521. 

I 
John III.. 1539 : 



Berg. Ravensberg. 
Henry. 1299. 
Margaret = OtLo, 1328. 



JULIEES. 



William I. 

I 



GUELDERS. 



Reinhald, 1343. 



Margaret = Gerhard, 1360. 
I 
William, 1408. 

I 



I 
William, 1428. 

Gerhard, 1475. 

I 

William IV., 1511. 

I 
izz^^ Maria. 



Adolf, 
1437. 



Edmund Tudor. 
I 
Henry VII. 



John Frederick I., 1554 = Sibylla. 



William V., 1592. 

I 



Anne = Henry VII I. 



William II., 1393 = Maria. 

I 
Reinhald IV., 1423. 



Maria = John of Egmond. 

I 
Duke Arnold, 1465. 

Adolf, 1471. 

I 
Charles. 
Gives Guelders by his last will in 1539 to 
William V. of Cleves. Emperor Charles 
V. takes it in 1543. 



Ill I 

John Frederick II., 1595. John William, Mary Eleanor = Albert Frederick Anne = Count Palatine 
I 1609. |_ of Prussia. t of Neuburg. 

! I I ! 

John Casimir, 1623. John Sigismund = Anne. Magdalen = John George Wolfgang William. 

of Brandenburg. of Saxony. Obtains Juliers, Berg, Ravensteiu 

Obtains Cleves, Mark, Ravensburg. See Genealogy XVI. 



I I 

Magdalen. Sibylla. 

Excluded from any share of the 
inheritance. 



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From the elder or Emestinian Branch 
are descended the Prince of Wales and the 
Kings of Portugal and Belgium, from the 
younger or Albertinian Branch are de- 
scended the Kings of Saxony. The elec- 
tors of Saxony are marked 1-16 : the 
kings of Saxony (since 1806) I.-V. From 
1697 to 17(33 the electors of Saxony were 
also kings of Poland. From the elder 
branch are also descended the rulers of 
the Saxon Duchies : Charles Alexander, 
b. 1818, Grand Duke of SaxeWeimar; 
George II., b. 1826, Duke of Saxe-Mein- 
ingen ; Ernest, b. 1826, Duke of Saxe-Al- 
tenburg; Ernest tl., b. 1818, Duke of 
Saxe-Coburg Gotha. Duke Ernest II. 
being childless the heir apparent is his 
nephew, Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, b. 
1844, the ?on of Prince Albert, of Saxe- 
Coburg Gotha, and Queen Victoria. 



Conrad I. of Wettin, Marquis of Misnia, t 1157. 

I 

Otto Dives, 11»0. 

I 

Dietrich Exsul, 1221. 

Henry Illustris, 1288. 

I 
Albert Degener, 1314. 

Frederick Admorsus, 1324, 

Frederick Severus, 1349. 



XV.— GENEALOGY OF 
THE HOUSE OF WETTEST. 



Frederick Strenuus, 1281. 

1 Frederick, first Elector of Saxony since 1423, died 1428. 

2 Frederick II., 1464. 
I 



I 
3 Erneet, 1486. 

! 

Frederick the Wise, 1525. John, 1532. 

4 John Frederick the Magnanimous, deprived 
of the Electorate in 1547, died 1554. 

I 
John William, 1573. 

John, 1605. 
I 



Albert, 1500. 



Henry the Pious, 1541. 



George, 
1539. 



5 Maurice, 
1553. 



6 Augustus, 1586. 

7 Christian I., 1591. 

I 



William, 1662. 



Ernest the Pious, 1640. 



Bernard the Great, 1639, 
the hero of the thirty years' war. 



John George I., 1656. 



Christian II., 
1611. 



Saxe- Saxe- Saxe- Saxe- 

Weimar. Meiningen. Altenburg. Coburg Saalfeld. 

John Ernest, 1720. 



10 John George II., 1680. 



11 John George III., 1691. 

I 



I 

Ernest I., 1844, 

Duke of 

Saxe-Coburg Gotha. 

Albert, 1861, 
Pi iiice Consort. 



1844. Alfred. 



1874, Alfred. 



Francis Josias, 1764. 

Ernest Frederick, 1800. 

Francis, 1806. 



13 Frederick Augustus I., 1733. 

I 
14 Frederick Augustus II., 1763. 

15 Frederick Christian, 1763. 

I 



12 John George IV. 
1694. 



Ferdinand, 1851. 



Leopold I.. 1865, 
King of the Belgians. 



I. Frederick Augustus T., 
1827. 



II. Anton, 



Ferdinand, 1885, 
King of Portugal. 



Augustus, 

d. 1881. 

I 



Leopold II., 
b. 1835. 



Louis, 1889. 



1863, Carlos I. 

I 
1887, Louis. 



Augustus, 
b. 1845. 



Pedro, 
b. 1866. 



Ferdinand, 

b. 1861, 

Prince of Bulgaria, 

I 

1894, Boris. 



Philip, 
b. 18.37. 



Albert, 
b. 1875. 



I 

1840, Charlotte 

= Maximilian, 

1867 Emperor of 

Mexico. 



Maximilian, 1836. 



I I 

III„ Frederick Angus- IV. John, 
tus II., 1854. d. Ifc73. 

I 



V. 1828, Albert. 1832, George. 



1865, Frederick Augustus. 

I 

1893, George. 



XV. A.— THE CLABIANTS FOR THE SPANISH MONAECHY IN 1700. 

After the sudden death of Joseph Ferdinand three claimants came forward for the Spanish monarchy: Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, Charlea 
of Habsburg, and Philip of Anjou, who got it. He took the name of Philip V. 

Philip I., 1506. 

I 



Charles Duke of Savoy, 1553. 



I 
Emperor Charles V., 1558. 



Emperor Ferdinand I., 1564. William IV. Duke of Bavaria. 



Emanuel Philibert. Elizabeth de Valois = Philip II., 1598 = Maria von Habsburg. Emperor Max. II., Charles. Anne = Albert V.. 1579 

I I I extinct in 1619, 1 



Charles Emanuel 



Catharina. 



Philip IIL, 1621. 



Emperor Ferdinand II., 1637. 



! Ill I 

Victor Amadeus I., 1637. Louis XIIL, 1643 = Anne Maria. Philip IV., 1665. Maria Anne = Emperor Ferdinand III., 1657. William V., 1590. 

I ! i-n ' , i ! 

Charles Emanuel II., 16T5. Louis XIV., 1715 — Maria Charles II., Margaretha Theresa = Emp. Leopold I. = Eleonora of Maximilian, 1650. 

" I Neuburg. j 



Victor Amadeus II., 1732. 



Theresa. 1700. 
Le Grand Dauphin, 1711. 



I ! I 

Emp. Joseph I. Charles. Ferdinand Maria, 1679. 



Louis of Burgundy. Philip of Anjoc. 



Maria Antonia 



Max Emanuel, 1706. 



Joseph Ferdinand, 
1699. 
The intended heir to the Spanish Monarchy. 



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XVni.— GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND OF ITS TWO BRANCHES, 

The Elder now on the Austrian Throne, the Younger the Celebrated House of Guise. 

Showing also its relations with the Plantagenets, Stuarts, Valois, Habsburgs, and Bonrbons. Stanislaus Leszczynski having renounced the 
Polish Throne received as compensation Lorraine and Bar, which at his death should devolve upon France. 

Gerhardt of Alsace, 1050. 



Albert, 1048. 



Gerhard, 1070. 

I 
Thierry, 1115. 

Sigmund I., 1141. 

Matthew I., 1176. 



Sigmund II. 
1207. 



Edward I., 1307. 

Edward II., 1327. 

Edward IIL, 1377. 

Lancaster, 1399. 



Frederick I., 1206. 

I 
Frederick II., 1213. 

I 



I 

Thibaut I. 

1220. 



Charles of Valois. 
King Philip VI., 1350. 

King John, 1364. 
Louis of Anjou, 1384. 



Matthew II., 1251. 
I 
Frederick III., 1303. 
I 
Thibalilt II., 1312. 

I 
Frederick IV., 1328. 

Rudolph, 1346 = Maria, heiress of Guise. 
I 
John I., 1390. 



Walter Stuart. 
I 
Robert II., 1390. 



Henry IV., 1413. 
Henry V., 1422. 



Louis II., 1417. 
Rene I.. 1480 z 



Henry VI., 1471 = Margaret. 



Prince of Wales, 
1471. 



Charles, 1431. 
Isabella, 1453. 



I 
Frederick V. =. Margaret, heiress of Vaudemont. 

Antoine, 1447. 



John II., 1471. Jolantha 



Frederick VL, 1470. 



Nicholas, 
1473. 



Ren6 II., 1508. 



Robert III., 1406. 

I 
James I., 1437. 



James II., 1460. 
James III., I486. 



Antoine, 1544. 



Claude, 1550. 

I 



James IV., 1513. 



I I I I I I I I 

Francis I., 1545. Francis of Guise, 1563. Card, of Lorraine. Aumale. Elbceuf. Card, of Guise, Mary = James V., 154^ 

I _J 1574^ 1578. I 

II II I 
Charles II.. 1608. Henri Le Balafre, 15b8. Mayence, 1611. Card, of Guise, Mary Stuart, 1587. 

I I I 1588. I 



Henry, 1624. Francis II., 1632. Charles, 1640. Chevreuse, Henry, 
I __\ _| 16_57. 1621. 

I I I I I 

Nicoliea, = Charles III., Nicolas Henry II., Joj-euse, 1654. 
1657. 1675. Francis, 1670. 1690. I 



Charles IV , 1690. 
I 
Emp. Charles VI., 1740. Leopold, 1729. 

I I 

Maria Theresa, 1780 = Emp. Francis I., 1765. 



Louis Josef, 1671. 

I 

Francis Josef, 

1675. 



James I., 1625. 
Elizabeth, 1662. 

! 

Stanislaus Leszczynsky. Sophia, 1714. 

I I 

Louis XV., 1774 = Maria, 1768. George I., 1727. 

! I 

Dauphin, 1765. George II., 1760. 



II I I I I I 

Emp. Josef II., Emp. Leopold II., 1792. Marie Antoinette = Louis XVI., 1793. Louis XVIIL, Charles X., 1836 Frederick, 1751. 

1790. I __} 1824. [__ I 

I 



I III 

Emp. Francis II., 1835. John. 1859, Maria Therese, Louis XVII. 
I Imp. Vicar. 1851. 1795. 

I 



Angouleme, Berry. 1820. George III., 1820. 
1844. 



Emp. Ferdinand I., 1875. Francis Charles, 1878. Maria Louisa, 1847 = Napoleon L, 1821. 
I I 

I I III 

Emp. Francis Joseph, Maximilian, of Mexico, Charles Louis, Louis, Napoleon 
b. 1830. 1867. d. 1896. b. 1842. 1832. 

I I 

I III 

Rudolph, 1889. 1863, Francis. 1865, Otto. 1868, Ferdinand. 



Duke of Kent, 1820. 
1810, Queen Victoiia. 

1841, Edward VII. 



I 
1887, Charles. 



I 
1895, Maximilian. 



Henrv v.. Prince of Wales, 
1885. b. 1865. 



1894, Albert Edward. 



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XXI —GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF CERDIC, FROM THE 

REIGN OF ECGBERHT, 802 a.d. 

Explanation -Year after a name is the year of death ; Year under a name s^ignifies the person died without issue Aethelred had from 
liXPLANATiON. ^^ Edmond Ironside ; from Emma, Edward the Confessor. Cnut had from Emma, Harthacnut ; from Elgiva, Harold I. 

Ecgberht, 837. 
Aethelwulf, 858. 



Aethelbald, 
860. 



Aethelbeiht, 



I 

Aethelred I. 

871. 



Aelfred, 901. 
Edward the Elder, 925. 



XXII.— HOUSE OF 
GODWIN. 



Aethelstan, 
940. 



Eadmund, 946. 



Eadred, 
955. 



Eadwig, 
959. 



Eadgar, 

I 



Richard I. of Normandy, 996. Sweyn, ]014. 



Sweyn. 
I 



Edward the Martyr, Aethelred II., 1016 . Emma ; 

979. I t I 

Eadmund Ironside, 1016. Eadward Harthacnut, 

I the Confessor, 1042. 

Thurgill. Eadward, 1057. 1066. 

I I 



Cnut, 1035 



Elgiva. 



Harold I., 1040. 



Cnut, 1035. Margaret = Ulf. 



Gytha = Godwin, 1053. 



I I I I II. 

Eadward the = Eadgyth. Harold, Tostig, Sweyn. Gyrth. Leotwine. 

Confessor, 1066. 1066. 
1066. 



Eadgar the Aetheling, Margaret = Malcolm III. of Scotland, 1093. 
1120. I 

Mathilda = Henry I. of England, 1135. 

Emperor Henry V., = Mathilda = Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
1125. 1 

Henry II. of England, 1189. 



Louis X., 1316. 



Jane. 



XXni.— THE FRENCH SUCCESSION IN 1328 and 1422. 

Philip III. , 1285. 

I 



I 
Philip IV., 1314. 



Philip v., 1322. 



Jane. 



Charles IV., 1327. 



Margaret. Blanche. 



I 
Edward I., 1306. Charles of Valois, 1325. 

-, " r I 

Isabella = Edward II., 1327. Phihp VI., 1350. 

I I 

Edward III., 1377. John, 1364. 



Charles the Bad. Philip. 



Louis III. 



Navarrk. Burgundy. Flanders. 

See Gen. XXIX. See Gen. XIV. 



The older Capetians. 
The Valoi« kings. 
The Plantagenets. 



Philip. The Black Prince, 1376. John of Gaunt, 1399. Charles^V^1380. 

Orleans. Ri^^^"^^.!?:.' .?.!Hyi.Y.-'. l^^^. 

i400. I 

Henry V., 1422 = Cath'arina. Charles VII., 1462. 
Henry VI., 1471. Louis XL, 1483, 

\" '^ T^ 

Prince Edward, Charles VIIL, 
1471.' "'^^^'^98^^ 




XXIV.— GENEALOGY OF THE TUDORS, EXPLAINING THEIR CLAIM TO THE 

ENGLISH THRONE. 



Henry Grismond Duke of Lancaster, 1306. Edward III., 1377. 

I • i 

Blanche r=:==^i==:==izr John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster : 



Catherine Swynford. 



John Beaufort Earl of Cardinal of Winchester, Duke of Exeter, Joan = Ralph Nevil, Earl of 
Somerset. 1410. 1447. 1424^ ^ _J }Vestmoreland. 



Henry IV., 1413. Charles VI., 1422. 

' I , 

Henry V., 1422 = Catherine = Owen Tudor. John, 1448. Edmund, 1455. Earl of Warwick. Richard = Alice heiress of Cecily = York, 1460. 
II 111 ' ^^^^ ^* Salisbury. 



Anne = Warwick the Kingmaker, 1471. 



I I I I I 
Henry VI., 1471. Pembroke, Richmond, 1456 = Margaret, 1509. Margaret 

I 1461. 1 1 I 

Edward Prince of Wales, Henry (VII.) Tudor, 1509. Duke of Buckingham, 1460. Anne 

1471. I 1 1 

Henry VIIL, 1547. Humphrey, 1461. Edward Prince of Wales, 

I I 1484. 



I I 

Richard III., 1485. Edw. IV., 14^3. 
I 
Edward V., 
1483. 



I I I 

Edward VI., Marv, Elizabeth, 

1553. 1558, 1603. 



Duke of Buckingham, beheaded by Richard III., 1483, Nov. 2d. 



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XXIX.— GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON IN ALL ITS BRANCHES, from 

1200 TILL 1902. 

Showing also the Sovereigns of Navarre since 1QS4, and all the Kings of France except those of the House of Valois, for whom see Gen. XXVI. 



Hugh Capet, 996. 

Robert, 1033. 

I 

Henry I., 1060. 

Philip I., 1108. 

I 
Louis VI., 1137. 

I 
Louis Vli., 1180. 

Philip Augustus 1223. 

I 

Louis VIII., 1226. 

• I 

St. Louis, 1270. 



William I., of Dampierre. 

Guido. of Dampierre, 1215 = Mathilda, heiress of Bourbon. 

I 

Arc^ambaud IX. 

I 

Archambaud X., 1249. 

i 

John of Burgundy, 1268 = Agnes, heiress of Bourbon. 



I I I 

Philip III., 1285. Robert of Clermont = Beatrix, heiress of Bourbon. 

I I 

Philip IV., 1314 = Jeanne, Queen of Navarre and Champagne. Louis I. de Bourbon, 1341. 

\ ___J 

I 



liOuisX., Philip v., Charles IV., 
1316. 1322. 1327. 

Jeanne, Queen of Navarre, 1349. 

Charles II., 1387, 

I 
Charles III., 1425. 

I 
Blanca, 1444 = Juan II. of Aragon, 



Eleonore, heiress of Navarre = Gaston de Foix, 1472. 



Pierre de Bourbon, 1356. 



Louis II., 1410. 



James de la Marche, 1-362. 



Jean de la Marche, 1393. 



Jean, 1434. 



James II. 
1438. 



Charles de Bourbon. Louis de Montpensier, 1486. 

I I 



Jean de Foix, 1500. 
I 
I 



Gaston, 1470. Jean II., Pierre II., 1503. Gilbert 1496. 
I 1488. I I 



II I - I 

Gaston, Germaine. Jean d'Alibert, 1516 = Catharine. Phoebus, 

1512. I 14K.3. 

The Thunder- Henry = Margaret of Navarre, 

bolt of War. | 

Jeanne d'Alibert z==^^=:: 



Susanne = Constable of Bourbon, 
1527. 



Louis de Vendome, 1447, 

i 

Jean, 1477. 
Francis, 1495. 
Charles, 1537, 



Henry IV., 1610, 
I 



I I I 

; Antoine de Na\irre. Card. Bourbon (Charles X.), Louis de 

1590. CoNDE, 1569. 

L__ 

I ! I 

b Francis, c Charles de Soissons. a Henry I., 1588, 



1631. 



6 Gaston of Orleans. 



a Louis XIII., 1643. 

I 



I I 

Mademoiselle de Montpensier, Louis XIV., 1715. Orleans, 1701. 
1693. 

The Regent, 1723. 

I 
The Dauphin. Louis, 1752. 



Louis, Marie. Henri II., 1646. 
1641. I 

The Conde, 1686. Conti. 1»:66. 

I I 

Henri Jules. Francis Louis, 1685. 

I I 

Louis III., 1710. Louis Armand, 1727. 



I 
Duke of Burgundy. 

I 

Louis XV., 1774. 



Philip v., 1746. 



Louis Philippe. Louis Henri, 1740. Louis Francis, 1776. 



Louis Ferdinand Charles Philip, 1765. Egalit^, 1792 Louis Josef, 1818. 



I., 1724. VI., 1759. III., 1788, 

I 



Charles IV., 1819. 



Ferdinand I., 
tl825. 



Louis. 
1814. 



Louis Henry, 1830. 

I 
Ferdinand I., Louis Philippe, Duke of Enghien, 

tl8Li2. d. IbSU. shot in 1804. 



Charles X. 
d. 1836. 



Francis de 
Paula, 1865. 



Ferdinand 
VII., 1833. 



Don Carlos, Francis I., 
d. 1855. tlS30. 



Berry, 1820. Francis of Assisi, = lRabellfi II., Louisa, Juan 
I b. 1822. I b. 1830. b. 1832. d. 188' 

III of Parmn. d. 1894. 

i I III resigned 1849. j 

Henry v.. 1857, Alfonso XII., 1885. Anton, Cailos, Francis II., Orleans 

1885. I b. 1866. b. 1848. LaatKingofthe b. 1869, 

I I Two Sicilies, 

I ^ I I 1894. 

1886, Alfonso XIII. Alfonso, Jayme, 

b. 1886. b. 1870. 



I I I I I . I 

Louis I., Duke of Orleans, Nemours, Jcinville, Auniale, Montpensier.| 

d. 1803. d. 1842. b. 1814, b. 1818, b. 1822. d. 1890, 

I I I d. 1896. d. 1900. d. 1897. Jiusband of 

I I I I I Lovisa. sis'tei\ 

Ferdinand II., Charles II., Count of Chartres, Coiuit d'Eu, Penthievre, of Isabella II 

tl859. Last Duke Paris, b. 1840. b. 1842. b. 1845. 



Henry, 

b. 1867, 
d. 1901. 



Pedro, 
b. 1875. 



INDEX. 



Aaiimes II., King of Egypt, 13 

Abassides, Caliphs, 61, 119 

Abd-Allah, Gl 

Abd-Almekik, Caliph, 61 

Abd-Errhamau, Emir of Cordova, 61 

Abdul-Hamid II., 163 

Abolitionists, 180 

Aboo-Simbel, temple of, 7 

Aboukir, battle of, 147 

Abu-Bekr, compiler of the Koran, 60 

Abu-1-Abbas, Caliph, 61 

Abydos, on the Hellespont, 7, 20 

Academy of Athens, 22 

Acadia, 172 

Acanthus, canal at, 20 

Acco, 9; siege of, 76 

Achaia, a Roman province, 36 

Achaian League, 17, 37 

Achaians, 17 

Achmed, Mostaser, 85 

Acre, siege of, 147 

Actium, battle of, 45 

Adams, John, 177 

Adams, John Quincy, 186 

Adela, daughter of William the Con- 
queror, 71 

Adelheid, wife of Otto I., 68 

Adhemar, Bishop of Puy, 75 

Adherbal, King of Numidia, 38 

Adolphus, of Nassau, 90 

Adrianople, battle of, 52; Turks take, 
92 

^gatian Islands, battle at, 34 

^gos Patmos, battle of, 22 

Alfred (the Great), 64 

^lla, the Saxon, 57 

vEolians, 15 

^qui War, 31 

^thelbald. King of Mercia, 58 

^thelburh, wife of Eadwine, 58 

^thelfrith, King of Northumbria, 57 

^thelred. King of the Saxons, 65 

^thelric, of Northumbria, 57 

^thelstan. King of Saxons, 65 

^thelwulf. King of West Saxons, 64 

Africa, a Roman province, 36; gov- 
erned by the Vandals, 53; recon- 
quered by Justinian, 55; the Mos- 
lems in, 60; West Coast discovered 
by Portuguese, 108; division of, 166; 
South, war in, 166 

Agade, library of, 5 

Agesilaus, King of Sparta, 23 

Agincourt, battle of, 98 

Agrarian laws, 37, 39 

Agricola, Governor of Britain, 49 

Agrippa. M. Vipsanius, 45 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, 185 

Agukakrime, King of Kosssea, 5 

Ahmed I., 123 

Ai, King of Egypt, 7 

Aix-la-Chapelle, 63; peace of, 133, 142 

Akkad, 5 

Alamannia, 47, 69 

Alaric, King of the Visi-Goths, 52 

Alani, tribe of, 51 

Alba, 27, 28 

Albanians, 92 

Albert I., of Austria, 90, 103; II., 103 

Albert of Hohenzollern, 126, 142 



Albigenses, 82 

Alboin, King of the Longobards, 55 

Albuquerque, 109 

Alcibiades, 22 

Alemanni, 51, 55 

Akxander, Tsar of Russia, I., 147, 
148; II., 158, 163 

Alexander III., of Norway, 87 

Alexander II., Pope, 67; VI., 110, 112 

Alexander, the Gtent, his army, 24; 
invasion of Persia, 24; death, 25; 
his successors, 25 

Alexandria, founded, 24; Caesar in, 43; 
captured by Moslems, 60; Mame- 
lukes in, 67; bombarded by English, 
164 

Alexis, Tsar of Russia, 139 

Alexius I., Greek Emperor, 75, 77 

Alfonso III., of Leon, 104 

Alfonso VI., of Castile and Leon, 105, 
106 

Alfonso X., ihe Wise, of Castile, 106 

Alfonso XII., of Spain, 160 

Alfonso I., of Portugal, 105, 106; V., 
107 

Alfonso I., of Naples, 106, 107; II., 110 

Alfred the Great, 64 

Ali, Caliph, 60 

Aljubarrota, battle of, 106 

Allia, battle of, 32 

Almansor, Caliph, 62 

Altranstadt, peace of, 141 

Alva, Duke of, 122 

Alvaro de Luna, 105 

Alyatles III., King of Lydia, 12 

Amadeos I., King of Spain, 160 

Amadeos II., King of Sardinia, 137 

Amalaric, the Visi-Goth, 54 

Amalasuntha, daughter of Theodoric, 
55 

Ambrose, Archbishop of Rouen, 111 

Amen-em-hat I., King of Egypt, 3 

Amenhotep, King of Egypt, 6 

America, discovery of, 109; coloniza- 
tion by the Latin races, 168; by the 
Teutonic races, 170; English colo- 
nies in 18th Century, 171; Anglo- 
French struggle in, 172; Colonies 
and the English debt, 173; the 
Stamp Act, 173; Boston tea party, 
173; First Continental Congress, 174; 
War with England, 174; Declaration 
of Independence, 174 (see United 
States) 

Amerigo Vespucci, 109 

Amherst, Lord, 172 

Amiens, 102; peace of, 147 

Ampfing. battle of, 91 

Amru, the Moslem, 60 

Amurath L, 93; II., 95; III., 123; IV., 
123 

Amytis, Queen of Babylon, 13 

Anabasis, the, 23 

Ancona, 49, 84 

Andrassy, 162, 163 

Andreds Weald, 57 

Andrew II., King of Hungary, 78 

Angelus Isaac, Emperor of Eastern 
Empire, 77 

Angora, battle of, 95 

212 



Anjou, House of, 79, 84, 107 

Anne of Austria, 124 

Anne of Beaujeu, 102 

Anne Boleyn, 116 

Anne of Brittany, 111 

Anne of England, 136 

Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, 71 

Antalcidas, peace of, 23 

Anti-Federalists, 176 

Antigonidse, family of (see Genealo- 
gies) 

Antigonus, 25 

Antioch, 26, 75, 76 

Antiochus, Ihe Great, 35 

Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor, 49 

Antonius, Marcus, 44, 45 

Anu, 6 

Appian Road, 33 

Appius, Claudius, 37 

Appomattox Court House, 183 

Apries, King of Egypt, 13 

Aquae Sextia, battle of, 39 

Aquitaine, 54, 80 

Arabic Empire, conquests, 60; branches 
of, 61, 62; culture in, 85 

Arabi Pasha, 164 

Aradus, 6 

Aragon, kingdom of, 105 (see Spain 
and Genealogies) 

Arbela, battle of, 5, 25 

Arcadius, Greek Emperor, 52 

Argos, 17 

Arians, 54 

Aristagoras, 19 

Arius, doctrine of, 51 

Arkwright, Richard, 180 

Aries, 54, 61, 97 

Armagnacs of France, 98 

Armenia, 5, 42 

Arminius, 47 

Arsa, Caius Terentilius, 31 

Arses, King of Persia, 24 

Arsinoe, lake of, 3 

Artaphernes, King of Persia, 20 

Artaxerxes I., 22; II., 23, 24 

Arthur, Chester A., Pres. of U. S., 
186 

Arthur, King of Celts, 57 

Arthur, Duke of Brittany, 81 

Articles of Confederation, 175 

Arras, peace of, 99 

Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
90 

Aryans, 15, 48 

Aryenis, Queen of Media, 12 

Ascalon, battle of, 78 

Arsen II., Tsar, 92 

Asia, a Roman province, 40 

Assandum, battle of, 65 

Assaye, battle of, 165 

Assur-bani-pal, King of Assyria, 11 

Assur-natsir-pal, King of Assyria, 10 

Assur, 12 

Assur-dayan II., King of Assyria, 10 

Assuruballit, King of Assyria, 5 

Assyria, how named, 5; first empire, 
10: second empire, 11; fall, 11 

Astrakhan, annexed to Russia, 97 

Asturia, 105 

Astyages, King of Media, 13 



ATH — OHA 



Athalaric, King of Ostro-Goths, 55 

Athaulf, the Goth, 52 

Athelstan (see .Ethelstan) 

Athens, 21, 22 (see Greece) 

Attalus, King of Pergamus, I., 26; II., 
37 

Attila, King of the Huns, 52 

Auerstadt, battle of, 147 

Augsburg, peace of, 119; league of, 
134 

Augustus Caesar Octavianus, 46, 47 

Augustus II., King of Poland, 141 

Aurelius, Marcus, Roman Emperor, 49 

Austerlitz, battle of, 147 

Austria, house of Habsburg, 90; ac- 
quires the Hungarian crown, 91; 
house of Habsburg, 103, 124; great- 
ness under Charles V., 118; the 
thirty years' war, 127; war of 
Spanish succession, 135; peace of 
Utrecht, 137; war of the Austrian 
succession, 142; seven years' war, 
143; war with Napoleon, 147; con- 
gress of Vienna, 149; the restora- 
tion, 151; under Metternich, 151; 
conflict with Hungary, 153; loses 
Lombardy, 158; Austro-Prussian war, 
158 

Austrasia, 56, 62 

Avars, a Tartar tribe, 92 

Avignon, popes at, 91, 103 

Ayoubites, 76 

Azebes, Bishop of Osma, 82 

Babylox, early history, 4, 5; under 
second Assyrian empire, 11; as one 
of the four great powers, 12 

Bactria, 25 

Bagdad, seat of the caliphate, 62, 74, 
85, 120 

Balkan Peninsula, native races, 91 

Bajazet, Sultan, 94; II., 119 

Balearic Isles, 55 

Baldwin, of Flanders, 77, 78 

Baliol, John, 87 

Ball, John, the peasant revolt, 90 

Baltimore, Lord, 171 

Balu, Emperor of the Mongols, 86 

Banks, General N. P., 182 

Bannockburn, battle of, 88 

Barbarossa. 76, 83 (see Frederick I.) 

Barnet, battle at, 101 

Barras, 146 

Bastile, destruction of, 145 

Bavaria taken from Henry the Proud 
and Henry the Lion, 83; in the 
thirty years' war, 127, 129; in war 
of the Spanish succession, 135, 136; 
joins the German empire, 160 

Bazaine at Metz, 159, 189 

Beatrice, of Provence, 84 

Beaufort, Margaret, 101 

Bebars, King of Egypt, 78, 85 

Becket, Thomas a, 79 

Bedford, Duke of, 99 

Bedriacum, battle of, 47 

Behistum inscription, 3, 14 

Belga^, 38 

Belgium, 150 

Belgrade, siege of, 96 

Belkapkapu, King of Assyria, 5 

Bem, in Vienna, 153 

Benedict XI., Pope, 68 

Beneventum, 33, 84 

Bensington, battle of, 59 

Beorhtric, King of Wessex, 59 

Beornwulf, King of Mercia, 59 

Berengar II., 68 

Berlin memorandum, 162; treaty of, 
163 

Bernard, of Saxe-Weimar, 130 

Bernicia, kingdom of, 57 

Berry, Duke of, 102 



Biban-el-Moluk, 8 

Bipontine family of Sweden, 137 

Bismarck, 158 

Bithynia, 35, 41 

Black death, 86 

Blanche of Castile, 82 

Blenheim, battle of, 136 

Blois, treaty of, 82 

Bocchus, King of Mauritania, 38 

Bogoas, Vizier of Artaxerxes, 24 

Bohemia, war with Rudolph, 90; 
under John, 90; Sigismund, 91; 
Hussite war in, 103; union with 
Hungary, 103; deposes Rudolph, 
124; Ferdinand seizes, 127 

Bohemond, of Tareut, 75 

Boleslaf I., King of Poland, 143 

Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., 
116 

Bonaparte, Napoleon (see Napoleon 
I.) 

Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 
147 

Bonaparte, Jerome, 147 

Bonaparte, Joseph, 147, 148 

Boniface, of Montferrat, 77, 78 

Boniface, Pope. VIII., 79; X., 94 

Bordeaux, 89, 99 

Boris, Godounof, Tsar, 138 

Born, Bertrand de, the Troubadour, 80 

Borodino, battle of, 149 

Bosnia, history of, 162 

Boston, tea party, 173; English driven 
from. 174 

Bosworth, battle of, 101 

Bourbon, house of, 114, 115 (see Gene- 
alogies) 

Bouvines, battle of, 81 

Boyne, battle of, 135 

Braddock, General, 172 

Braganza, house of, 130 

Brandenburg, sold to Charl?s IV., 91; 
sold to Frederick, 91; in thirty 
years' war, 128; Frederick the 
Great, 142 

Brandywine, battle of, 174 

Breitenfeld, battle of, 129 

Bremen, 79 

Brisserte, battle of, 69 

Britain, Celtic, 48; Roman, 43, 48, 49; 
Jutes in, 56, 57; English and Sax- 
ons land in, 57; under Arthur, 57; 
under Ethelfrith, 58; under Ead- 
wine's supremacy, 58; under Oswiu, 
58; Mercian supremacy in, 59; Ecg- 
berht king in, 59 (see England) 

Brittany, 66, 89, 103 

Broussa, capital of Osmanli Empire, 
03, 95 

Bruce, Robert, King of Scotland, 87, 
88 

Brundisium, 40, 42, 45 

Brutus, Decimus, 44 

Brutus, M. Junius, 44 

Brythons, 48 

Buchanan, James, Pres. of U. S., 186 

Buckingham, Duke of. 101. 131 

Buena Vista, battle of, 180 

Bulgaria, 69, 92; second kingdom of, 
92; taken by Turks, 93; revolt of, 
162 

Bulgarians, 92 

Bull Run, battle of, 182 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 174 

Burgoyne, General, 174 

Burgundians, 55, 56 

Burgundy, duchy of. 97; under Charles 
the Bold, 101. 102; under Constable 
of Bourbon, 114 

Burgundy, kingdom of, its rise, 56; 
name, how applied, 97 

Burnaburias, King of Kardunius, 5 

Burnside, General A. E., 182 

213 



Burr, Aaron, 177 
Byblus, 7 
Byzantium, 51, 76, 92 

Cabot, John, 116, 168 

Cabral, Alvarez, the discoverer, 109 

Cadwalla, King of Gwynedd, 58 

Caepio, 38 

Caedmon, 65 

Caesar, Caius Julius, 42, 43, 44 

Cairo, 62, 78 

Calais, 89, 99 

California, 180 

Caligula, Caius, 47 

Caliphate of Cordova, 74 

Callias, peace of, 22 

Calmar, union of, 125 

Cambray, league of, 112; peace of, 115 

Cambyses, King of Persia, 14 

Camelot, 57 

Camillus, Marcus Furius, 31 

Campbell, Sir Colin, 165 

Campo-Formio, peace of, 147 

Canada, the French in, 172; conquest 
of, 172; in the war of 1812, 178 

Canary Isles, discovered, 108 

Canna?, battle of, 34 

Canossa, castle of, 65, 75 

Canterbury, 65 

Cape of Good Hope, discovered, 108 

Capets, 69, 70, 97 

Caphtor, 3 

Cappadocia, 5 

Capua, 33, 41 

Caramania, Prince of, 94 

Carinthia, 69, 90 

Carlisle, 71 

Carlists, the, 150 

Carlos, Don, pretender of Spain, 150 

Carlos, Don, of Vienna, 124 

Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, 188 

Carlovingians, 62, 67, 69 (see Genealo- 
gies) 

Carolana, colony of, 170 

Carolinas, the, 170, 181 

Carrhae, battle of, 43 

Carbo, Consul, 37, 38 

Carthage, punic wars, 33, 34, 36; de- 
struction of, 36; Vandals in, 53 

Cartier, Jacques, 168 

Casdim, 5 

Casimir, John, II., King of Poland, 
138; IV., 142; the Great, 143 

Cassander, son of Antipater, 25 

Cassius, Consul, 44 

Castile, 74, 104 (see Spain) 

Castillon, battle before, 99 

Catalonia united to Aragon, 105 

Cateau-Cambresis, peace of, 115 

Catherine of Aragon, wife of Henry 
VIII., 116 

Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., 98 

Catherine II., of Russia, 144 

Catherine de Medici, 122 

Catholic League, 126 

Catiline, conspiracy of, 42 

Catinat, General, 135 

Cato, M. Porcius, the Elder, 36; the 
Younger, 42 

Cattrail, the, 57 

Catulus, C. Lutatius, 34, 38 

Cavaignac, General, 153 

Cavour, 158 

Celts, in Asia Minor, 26; in Italy, 27, 
31; burn Rome, 32; of Britain, 48, 
56 

Central America, 189 

Cerdic, King of the Saxons, 57 (see 
Genealogies) 

Cerignola, battle of, 112 

Chaeronae, battles at, 24, 40 

Chaldaeans, 4, 5 

Chalons, battle of, 52 



CHA— EAS 



Cliampaigne, Count of, 82 

Champlain, Samuel de, 170 

Chaucellorsville, battle of, 182 

Charibert, King of the Franks, 56 

Charlemagne, 63, 70 

Charles Albert, of Sardinia, 155 

Charles of Anjou, 84, 107 

Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, 101, 
102 

Charles I. (Charlemagne), 63, 70; II., 
the Bald, 64, 69; III., the Fat, 64, 69; 
IV., 91; V. (I. of Spain), 114, 115, 
117, 118, 119; VI., 137, 142 

Charles I., of England, 131 

Charles III., the Simple, of France, 
66, 69; IV., 88; V., the Wise, 98; VI., 
98; VII., 96, 99, 104; VIII., 110; X., 
152 

Charles, Duke of Lorraine, 70 

Charles, Angevin, King of Hungary, 
143 

Charles I., of Spain, 117 (see Charles 
v., of Austria); II., 135: III., 136; 
IV., 148 

Charles X., of Sweden, 138; XL, 138; 
XII., 140 

Charles, of Bohemia, 91 

Charles, of Orleans, 106 

Charles, of Durazzo, 107 

Charles, Duke of Sweden, 125 

Charles, of Valois, 88 

Chattanooga, battles of, 182 

Chedor-laomer, King of Elam, 5 

Chester, 58 

Cheta (Hittites), 5, 6, 7 

Chetam, 7 

Cheops, pyramid of, 2 

Childebert, King of the Franks. 56 

Chilperic, King of the Franks, 56 

China, Jenghis Khan in, 84; anti-for- 
eign outbreak In, 185 

Chippewa, battle of, 178 

Chippenham, home of Alfred, 64 

Christian I., King of Denmark, 125; 
II., 125; IV., 127; IX., 158 

Christianity, under Constantine, 51; 
among the Teutons, 54; the Franks, 
55; conversion of the Goths, 56; Cel- 
tic church, 58; conversion of the 
English, 58, 65; becomes aggressive, 
74; conversion of the Bulgarians, 92; 
the reformation, 117 (see Papacy) 

Chrysopolis, battle of, 51 

Cicero, 42, 44 

Cillcia, 5, 10, 25, 38, 77 

Cimbri, 38 

Cimon, 22 

Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, 40 

Cirta, taking of, 38 

Cisalpine Gaul, conquest of, 43 

Clair on Epte, treaty of, 66 

Clarence, Duke of, 99 

Claudius, Roman Emperor, 49, 50 

Clay, Henry, 181 

Cleisthenes, constitution of, 19 

Clement V., Pope, 91; VII., 115 

Cleopatra, 45 

Cleopatra's needles, 6 

Cleves, house of (see Genealogies) 

Clermont, council of, 75 

Cleveland, Grover, Pres. of U. S., 181 

Clive, Lord, 165 

Clive succession, 126 

Clotilda, wife of Clovis, 55 

Clovis, King of the Franks, 54, 55 

Clugny, Abbey of, 73 

Clusium, siege of, 32 

Cnut, the Great, 65 

Coalition against France, 147 

Code Napoleon, 148 

Cognac, league of, 115 

Coligni, 122 

Coliseum erected, 48 



Colline Gate, battle of, 41 

Cologne, Archbishop of, 90 

Colonna, family of, 103, 115 

Columban, 87 

Columbus, Christopher, voyages of dis- 
covery to America, 109, 168 

Comitia Tributa, 28 

Commerce, in Old Egypt, 3; of the 
Phoenicians, 9; in Assyria, 11; in 
Lydia, 12; in Egypt, 13; in Greece, 
21; in Carthage, 36; of Venice and 
Genoa, 79, 106; of the Hansa, 104; 
Napoleon's system of, 148; with In- 
dia, 165; of early colonies, 171; as 
cause of the civil war, 180 

Commodus, Roman Emperor, 49 

Commune, the, in Paris, 146, 152 

Concord Bridge, battle of, 174 

Conde, the Great, 30 

Confederate States of America, 181 

Conflans, treaty of, 102 

Congress, first Continental, 174, 175; 
second, 174 

Connecticut, colony of, 170 

Conrad I., Emperor of Holy Roman 
Empire, 67; II., 76 

Conrad, of Hohenstaufen, 83 

Consalvo de Cordova, 112 

Constance, council of, 103 

Constance, daughter of Roger 11. , 83 

Constantine Paiaeologus, 95 

Constantine I., 51 

Constantinople, 52, 61; empire of, 92; 
under Solyman, 120; under the Viz- 
irs, 139; conference of the great 
powers in, 163 

Constantius, Roman Emperor, 50 (see 
Genealogies) 

Constitutional assembly of France, 
145 

Constitutions of Clarendon, 80 

Constitution of the United States, 175, 
176 

Copenhagen, besieged, 138 

Cordeliers, 145 

Cordova, the Emirs of, 62 

Corfinium, capital of ancient Italy, 39 

Corinth, location, 17; war with Ath- 
ens, 21; under Macedonia, 25; de- 
struction, 37 

Cornwallis, surrender of, 174 

Corradino. son of Conrad IV., 84 

Corsica, 55 

Corunna, battle of, 148 

Corvinus, Matthias, 96 

Cosmo I., 106 

Cotton, 180 

Council of the Ancients, 146 

Council of Five Hundred, 146 

Council of Blood, 122 

Couthon, 146 

Crassus, 38, 41, 42 

Crecy, battle of, 89, 91 

Cressy, peace of, 119 

Crimean War, 157, 158 

Critolaus, 37 

Croatia, 84 

Croesus, King of Lydia, 19 

Cromwell, Oliver, 132 

Crusades, causes that led to, 73; ag- 
gressive Christianity, 74; Gregory's 
plan for, 74; first crusade, 75; sec- 
ond and third crusade, 76; fourth, 
77; fifth, 78; children's, 78; sixth, 78; 
seventh, 79; orders resulting from, 
79 

Ctesiphon, city of, 51 

Cuba, 184 

Cumse, 16 

Cunaxa, battle of, 23 

Custozza, battle of, 155, 158 

Cyaxares, King of Media, 12 

Cynoscephalee, battle of, 35 
214 



Cynric the Saxon, 57 

Cyprus, 13, 25; captured by Venetians. 

106; taken by Turks, 123; given to 

England, 163 
Cyrillus, the Slavonic apostle, 93 
Cyrus, King of Persia, 23; the younger, 

23 

Dacia, war with Trajan, 47, iQ 

Dade, Major, massacre of, 179 

Daegsa's Stone, 57 

Dalmatia, 84 

Damascus, seat of the caliphate, 61; 
siege of, 76; capture by the Mon- 
gols. 85 

Damietta, taking of, 78 

Danes (see Denmark) 

Danton, 146 

Dardanus, peace of, 40 

Darius I., King of Persia, 14; II., 23; 
HI., 24 

Datis, Persian general, 20 

Dauphine, 102 

David, King of the Jews, 9 

David, King of Scotland, 71, 87 

Decius, Roman Emperor, 50 

Declaration of Independence, 174 

Deira, kingdom of, 57 

Delaware, 171 

De Leon, Ponce, 168 

Delos, sacred isle of, 20 

Delphi, oracle of, 12, 18 

Delta of the Nile, 2 

Demetrius, son of Antigones, 25 

Democrats, 179 

Denmark, invasions of England, 64; 
Cnut, 65; union of Calmar, 125; 
Christian IV. and the Thirty Years' 
War, 127; with Gustavus Adolphus, 
128; in the great Northern War, 140; 
the Succession question, 155; war 
with Prussia and Austria, 158 

De Noailles, 174 

Denys, John, the explorer, 168 

Deorham, battle of, 58 

Derby, Lord, 163 

De Ruyter, Admiral, 133 

Desmoulins, Camille, 146 

De Soto, Hernando, 168 

Despencers, the, 88 

Devolution, war of, 133 

Diaeus, head of the Achasan League, 
37 

Dijon, King John at, 97 

Diocletian, Roman Emperor, 50 

Directory, French, 146 

Dominic, Saint, 82 

Domitian, Roman Emperor, 48 

Donelson, Fort, 182 

Donskoi, Dimitry, of Russia, 96 

Doomsday Book, 70 

Dorea Baltea, 34 

Doria, Admiral, 115 

Dorians, 16, 17 

Douglass, Stephen A., 181 

Draco, Laws of, 18 

Drusus, M. Livius, 39 

Dufferin, Lord, 164 

Dumbarton, 49 

Dunbar, battle at, 87 

Dunstan, Archbishop, 65 

Duquesne, Fort, 172 

Dushan, Stephen, Tsar of Bulgaria, 92 

Durobrivas (Rochester), 57 

Dutch, in America, 170 

Dyrwaint, 59 

Eadmund, King of East Anglia, 64, 65 

Eadwine, King of Deira, 58 

Ealdred, Archbishop, 67 

Earnest, Archduke of Austria, 124 

East Anglia, 57, 58, 64 

East India Company, 165, 173 



EAS — GET 



Eastern Empire separated from West- 
ern, 51: becomes Asiatic, (59; threat- 
ened by Moslems, 75; during the 
Crusades, 76, 77, 78; fall of the Em- 
pire, 95 

Ebbesfleet, landing of the Jutes at, 56 

Ecbatana, 25 

Ecclesiastical Military Orders, 79 

Ecgberht, King of Wessex, 59 (see 
Genealogies) 

Ecnomos, battle of, 34 

Edgar, King of England, 6? 

Edict of Nantes promulgated, 123; ab- 
rogated, 134 

Edict of Restitution, 128 

Edinburgh founded, 58 

Edward I., King of England, 87; II., 
88: III., 88, 89: IV., 100; V., 101; VI., 
121; VII., 166 

Edward the Black Prince, 89 

Edward the Confessor, 65 

Egypt, its hieroglyphics, 1; sources of 
its history, 1: divisions, 2; religion, 
2: Old Empire, 2; 18th Dynasty, 6; 
19th Dynasty, 7: decline of, 8; one 
of the four great powers, 12; under 
the Ptolemies. 26; Caesar in, 43; 
conquered by the Mamelukes, 78; in 
the sixth Crusade, 78; Bonaparte in, 
147; Anglo-French Commission in, 
164; revolt of Araby Pacha, 164; the 
Mahdi, 164 

Elam, Empire of, 4, 5 

Elba, Napoleon at, 149 

Eleanor, wife of Louis VII., 80 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, 121, 122, 
125 

Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 
101 

Elizabeth, Tsarina of Russia, 143 

Elizabeth of Bohemia, '^0 

El-Kamil, Sultan, 78 

Ellandun, battle of, 59 

El-Mahdi, 164 

Embargo Act, 178 

England, Conquest of, 70; Norman 
Kings of, 71; Henry II,, 79; Magna 
Charta, 81; under Edward I., 87; 
invasion of Scotland, 87; French 
Succession of 1327, 88; Black Death 
in, 86; first invasion of France, 89; 
second invasion of France, 98; Agin- 
court, 98; loses French possessions, 
99; War of the Roses, 100; Tudor 
claims upon, 101; Henry VIII., 116; 
Queens Mary and Elizabeth, 121; 
English Church organized by James 
I., 126; Charles I. and Petition of 
Right, 131; Long Parliament, 132; 
Cromwell, 132; the Restoration, 133; 
Revolution of 1688, 134; Peace of 
Ryswick, 135; Spanish Succession 
War, 135, 136; Peace of Utrecht, 
137; gets Gibraltar, 137; Peninsular 
War, 148; Waterloo, 149; Crimean 
W^ar, 157; relations to Turkey, 163; 
assumes control of Egypt, 164; 
Anglo-Indian Empire, 165; First 
Settlements in America, 170; Early 
Colonies, 171; Anglo-French strug- 
gle in America, 172; War of Ameri- 
can Independence, 173, 174; War 
with America in 1812, 178 

Epamlnondas, 23 

Epidamnus, colony of, 21 

Entef IV., King of Egypt, 3 

Eric XIV., King of Sweden, 125 

Ernst, son of Frederick II., 104 

Ertoghrul, father of Osman, 93 

Esarhaddon, King of Assyria, 11 

Esnartero, 151 

Essex, Lord, 125 

Ethandun, battle of, 64 



Ethelbert (see ^thelbert) 

Etruscans, 27, 29, 32 

Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine, 61, 69 

Eudo IV., Duke of Burgundy, 97 

Eudoxia, daughter of Theodosius, 52 

Eugene, Prince of Savoy, 136 

Eurybiades, 20 

Europe (see the different countries) 

Eurymedon, battle of, 22 

Faiidii.ey, battle of, 59 

Falkirk, battle of, 87 

Fatima, 60 

Fatimite Caliphs, 62 

Federalists, 174, 175 

Feini (Fenians), 48 

Feodor I., Tsar of Russia, 97: HI., 
139 

Ferdinand I., of Austria, 124; II., 153 

Ferdinand of Bohemia and Hungary, 
120 

Ferdinand the Catholic, King of Ara- 
gon, 1G5, 111, 116 

Ferdinand III. of Castile, 105 

Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 148 

Ferdinand I., King of Naples, 107; II., 
110, 155 

Feudal System, origin of, 72; conse- 
quences, 72; spirit of, 73 

Feuillants, 145 

Fidente, 31 

Filangieri, 155 

Fillmore, Millard, Pres. of U. S., 186 

Fins, the, 92 

Flaccus, 37 

Flaminius, 35 

Flanders, 89, 97, 98, 99, 102, 133 

Flavii, the, 48 

Fleurus, battle of, 135 

Flodden Field, battle of, 113, 116 

Florence, 86, 106 

Florida discovered, 168; Huguenots in, 
169; purchased by the U. S., 179 

Floris v., 87 

Forey, General, in Mexico, 188 

Fornova, battle of, 111 

Foss Way, 49 

France (see Franks), rise of the king- 
dom, 69; Hugh Capet as king, 70; 
under Philip Augustus, 80; first in- 
vasion by England, 89; battle of 
Poitiers, 89; treaty of Bretigny, 89; 
second invasion by England, 98; bat- 
tle of Agincourt, 98; Jeanne Dare, 
99; English driven out, 99; Louis 
XI. and the nobles, 101; Duchy of 
Burgundy annexed, 102; invasions of 
Italy by Charles VIII. and Louis 
XII., 110, 112; under Francis I., 
114; Peace of Cambray, 115; under 
Charles IX., 122; Massacre of St. 
Bartholomew, 122; Henry of Navarre, 
123; Thirty Years' War, 130; Riche- 
lieu, 130; Peace of Westphalia, 130; 
war of Louis XIV. with the Grand 
Alliance, 135; in the Seven Years' 
War, 143; the Revolutionary period, 
145; First Republic, 145; the Assem- 
bly, 145; National Convention, 146; 
Reign of Terror, 146; the Directory, 
146; under Bonaparte, 147; the First 
Empire, 147; conquest of Western 
Europe, 147; war with Spain, 148; 
war with Russia, 149; fall of Napo- 
leon, 149; the restoration, 152; Rev- 
olution of 1848, 152; the Second Em- 
pire, 156; in the Crimean War, 157; 
Franco-Prussian War, 159; loses 
Alsace and Lorraine, 159; Third Re- 
public, 160; the Commune, 161: set- 
tlements in America, 171; An^'o- 
French struggle in America. 172; 
loses American possessions, 172; in- 
215 



vades Mexico, 188; withdrawal from 
Mexico, 189 

Francesco d'Assisi, 151 

Francia, 55, 64, 66 

Francis I., King of France, 113 

Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 
145, 153 

Franconia, 67 

Franco-Prussian war, 159 

Frankfort, 91; diet at, 154 

Franklin, Benjamin, 173 

Franks, 51, 54; under the Merovin- 
gians, 55; under the Carlovingians, 
62, 67; Charlemagne, 63; invasion of 
the Normans, 66; division into na- 
tions, 67 

Frederick V., Elector Palatine, 127 

Frederick William the Great, Elector, 
134, 138 

Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, 141 

Frederick I. (Barbarossa), 77, 83; II., 
78, 79, 83, 86; III., 84, 103, 130 

Frederick IV. of Denmark, 140; VII., 
156 

Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, 
142, 143 

Frederick William IV., Empero;- of 
Germany, 154 

Frederick the Warlike, 104 

Frederick of Hohenzollern, 91 

Frederick II. of Naples, 112 

Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, 117 

Fremont, J. C, 180 

Friedland, battle of, 147 

Fronde, civil war of the, 133 

Frundsberg, George, sacks Rome, 115 

Fulk IV., Count of Anjou, 79 

Gabinius, tribune, 41 

Gage, General, 174 

Galatia, 26 

Galba, Roman Emperor, 47 

Galeazzo, ]\Iaria, 110 

Galerius, Roman Emperor, 50 

Galli, division of Gaul, 44 

Gallicia, 86 

Games, Grecian, 16 

Garcia, King of Navarre, 105 

Garfield, James A., Pres. of U. S., 186 

Gascony, 82, 89 

Gastein Convention, 158 

Gaston de Foix, 113 

Gaul, conquest of, 43, 44 

Gauls, the, in ancient Italy, 34 

Gaveston, Gascow, 88 

Genealogies, 192 

Genghis Khan, 84 

Genoa, 74 

Genseric, 53, 55 

George I., King of England, 137; III., 
173 

Georgia, settlement of, 171 

Geraint, King of Dyrnaint, 59 

Germany, its victory over Romans, 
47, 54; rise of the kingdom of, 67; 
Otto the Great, 68; under Henry, 69; 
Barbarossa and the Crusades, 76; 
House of Habsburg. 90; Luxemburg. 
90; Hohenzollern, 91; Golden Bull. 
91; Hussite Wars. 103; Princely 
Houses, 104; Charles V., 115, 117: 
Luther, 117; Peasants' War, 118: 
Thirty Years' War, 127, 128; peace 
of Westphalia, 130; war with Na- 
poleon, 147; congress of Vienna, 149: 
the restoration, 149; the Revolution 
of 1848, 154; Holstein question, 156: 
second war with Denmark, 158; 
Austro-Prussian War, 158; North 
German Confederacy, 159; Franco- 
Prussian War, 159; re-establishment 
of the German Empire, 160 

Gettysburg, battle of, 182 



GEW — JUA 



Gewissa tribe, 57, 59 

Ghent, treaty of, 100, 179 

Ghibellines, 91 

Gibraltar, 61 

Girondists, 1-15, 146 

Gisela, daughter Charles the Simple, 
66 

Glabrio Manius Acilius, 35 

Gladiatorial War, 41 

Glaucia, 39 

Gloucester, Duke of, 90, 99, 101 

Godfrey of Bouillon, 75, 76 

Godwin, House of, 66 (see Genealo- 
gies) 

Goidels, tribe of, 48 

Golden Bull, 91 

Golden Horde, 86 

Gondebaut, King of the Burgundians, 
56 

Gordon, General, 164 

Gosshen, Land of, 9 

Gothia, 61, 104 

Goths (see Ostro-Goths and Visi- 
Goths) 

Gracchus, Caius, 37 

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, 37 

Graham's Dyke, 49 

Granada, 105; treaty of. 111; conquest 
of, 117 

Grand Alliance, 134 

Granicus, battle of, 24 

Grant, Ulysses S., Pres. of U. S., 186 

Gratianus, Roman Emperor, 51 

Gravelotte, battle of, 159 

Great Britain (see England) 

Greece, settlements, 15; colonies, 16; 
life in, 16; land and its divisions, 
17; Dorian emigration, 17; wars with 
Persia, 19, 20; Peloponnesian War, 
21; Sicilian expedition, 21; relations 
with Persia, 23; Macedonian su- 
premacy, 24; invasion of Asia, 24; 
division of, 25; independence of 
Cantons, 35; becomes a Roman prov- 
ince, 40; becomes part of Eastern 
Empire, 51; taken by the Turks, 94 

Greene, Nathaniel, 174 

Gregory VH. (Pope), 74; VIH., 76; 
IX., 78, 86; XI., 103; XIII., 103 

Grevy, President of France, 161 

Grey, Lady Jane, 121 

Grodno, battle of, 144 

Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty of, 180 

Guam, 185 

Guelphs, house of, 83, 91 (see Geneal- 
ogies) 

Guienne, duchy of, 88, 89 

Guise, family of, 122, 123 (see Geneal- 
ogies) 

Guizot, 152 

Gunpowder Plot, 125 

Giins, defence of, 120 

Gustavus Adolphus, 128 

Guthrum the Dane, 64 

Guti, tribe of, 5 

Guyenne, province of, 79, 81 

Gwynedd, 58 

Gyges, King of Lydia, 11, 12 

Gylippus, of Sparta, 22 

Habsburg, house of, 90, 103, 124, 142 
Hadrian, Roman Emperor, 49 
Hagenbach, governor of Elzass, 102 
Hamilton, Alexander, 176 
Hancock, John, 174 
Hannibal, 34 

Hapsburg (See Habsburg) 
Hardrada, Harold, 67 
Harold, King of the Danes, 67 
Harold, son of Godwin, 65 
Haroun-al-Raschid, 62 
Harrison, William H., Pres. of U. S., 
186 



Hastings, leader of the Northmen, 69 

Hastings, John, 87 

Hastings, battle of, 67 

Hastings, Warren, 165 

Hawaii, 185 

Hayes, Rutherford B., Pres. of U. S., 

186 
Heathfield, battle of, 58 
Hebrews, 9 

Heinsius, A., of Holland, 136 
Heliopclis, 3, 6 
Hellas (see Greece) 
Hel'enes in Greece, 16; in Italy, 32 
Helvetii, 38 

Hengist, King of the Jutes, 56 
Henry of Burgundy, 106 
Henry of Castile, HI., 105; IV., 105 
Henry, King of France, II., 119; III., 

123; IV., 75, 123, 127 
Henry, the Lion, 83 
Henry of Navarre, 75, 123, 127 
Henry, the Navigator, 109 
Henry, the Proud, of Saxony, 80 
Henry of Bavaria, 69 
Henry, King of Germany, II., 68; VI., 

77; VII., 90 
Henry, King of England, I., 71; II., 

79; IIL, 81, 82; IV., 90, 98; V., 98; 

VI., 101, 107; VII., 101, 116; VIII., 

112, 116 
Heraclea, battle of, 33 
Heracleid, dynasty of, 12 
Heraclius, Greek Emperor, 92 
Hericourt, battle of, 102 
Herzegovina, sketch of, 162 - — ' 
Hexam, battle of, 100 
Hicks Pasha, 164 
Hieroglyphics in Egypt, 1 
Hildebrand, 74 
Hippias, 19 

Hirhor, priest of Amon, 8 
History, of the East, 1; Greek, 18; 

Roman, 27; mediaeval, 54; modern, 

108; American, 167 
Hittites, 5, 6, 7 

Hohenstaufen, House of, 83 (see Ge- 
nealogies) 
Hohenzollern, House of, 104, 126 (see 

Genealogies) 
Holland, 122, 133, 134, 135, 147 
Holstein (see Sleswick-Hol stein) 
Holy League, 112, 126 
Holy Roman Empire, 67, 68, 90, 131 

(see Germany) 
Honorius, Roman Emperor, 52 
Hooker, General, 182 
Hor-em-hib, King of Egypt, 7 
Hosain, founder of the Shiites, 60 
House of Commons, origin of, 83 
Howe, Admiral, 174 
Hubertsburg, peace of, 143 
Hugh, King of Italy, 68 
Hugh Capet, King of France, 69, 70 
Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, 69 
Hugh, Count of Vermandois, 75 
Huguenots, 122. 134, 169 
Humbert I.. King of Italy, 155 
Hundred Days, the, 149 
Hungary, 84, 86; war with Otto the 

Great, 68; Sigismund, 91; united to 

Austria, 103; Turks invade, 118, 120; 

the revolution in, 153 (see Austria) 
Hunniades, of Hungary, 96 
Huns, 51, 52 
Huss, John, 103 
Hussite war, 103 
Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, 133 
Hy-Ivar, King of the Normans, 66 
Hyksos, Kings of Egypt, 3, 6 

IBEK, King of the Mamelukes, 78 

Illyrians, 27, 92 

Illyricum, a Roman province, 42, 51 

21G 



Ilulaka, grandson of Jenghis Khan, 85 

fna. King of Wessex, 59 

India, Alexander in, 25; Timour in, 
95; Portuguese in, 10^; Clive in, 165; 
under Warren Hastings. 165; the 
new charter, 165; the mutiny, 165; 
Anglo-Indian empire, 165 

Innocent III., Pope, 77, 82; VL, 103 

lona, Christianity of, 58 

lonians, 13, 15, 19, 22 

Ipsus, battle of, 25 

Iran, tribes, of, 4, 11 

Ireland, 48, 135 

Isabel, wife of Edward II., 88 

Isabel of Bavaria, 98 

Isabella of Castile, 105 

Isabella of Spain, I., 123; II., 150, 160 

Isabella, wife of Richard II., 90, 109 

Islam (see Arabic empire) 
I Ismail, of Damascus, 78 
j Issus, battle of, 24 

Italy (see Rome), Alaric in, 52; Van- 
dals in, 53; Odoacer in, 53; Theodo- 
ric in, 54; under Justinian, 55; Lom- 
bard kingdom, 62; Charlemagne's 
conquest of, 63; Otto crowned 
king, 68; Henry IV. in, 75; Barba- 
rossa in, 83; Guelph and Ghibelline, 
84, 91; free cities of, 106, 110; Vis- 
conti and Sforza, 110; Charles VIII. 
invades, 110; Louis XII. invades, 
111; the holy league, 112; Francis 
I. invades, 113; Spanish ascendency 
in, 116; peace of Utrecht, 137; an- 
nexed to France by Napoleon, 147; 
congress of Vienna, 149; the resto- 
ration in, 151; Austro-Sardinian war, 
155; war of 1859 against Austria, 
158; obtains Venice, 159; Rome made 
the capital, 160 

Ivan, Tsar of Russia, I., 96; III. (the 
Great), 96; IV. (the Terrible), 97; 
v., 139 

Ivernians, 48 

Jackson, Andrew, President of U. 
J S., 179, 186 

James I., of Aragon, 105 
' James, King of England, I., 126, 127, 
131; II., 134 

James IV., King of Scotland, 116 

Jamestown settled, 170 
[ Jean d'Albert, King of Navarre, 113 
I Jeanne Dare, the maid, 99 

Jecker & Co., 187 

Jefferson, Thomas, Pres. of U. S., 17t? 

Jenghis Khan, 84 
\ Jeroboam, King of Israel, 10 

Jerome, of Prague, 103 
'■ Jersey, East and West Colonies, 171 
, Jerusalem, 13, 75, 76 
j Jews, 13 
j Joan, Queen of Naples, I., 99; II., 107 

Joan of Arc, 99 

John of Austria, 90 

John Baliol, King of Scotland, 87 
I John, Duke of Burgundy, 94, 98 
I John, King of Navarre, 106, 107 

John, of Brienne, 78 

John, of Calabria, 96 
: John II., of France, 89 

John, of Gaunt, 89, 101 
j John, Galeazzo Visconti, 106 

John, King of Portugal, I., 106; II., 
108 

John XII., Pope. 68 

John, King of England, 80 

Johnson, Andrew. Pres. of U. S., 186 

Johnston, General J. E., 183 

Joseph I., Emperor of Austria, 135, 
136 

Jovian, Roman Emperor, 51 

Juan, Don, of Austria, 123 



JUA — MOH 



Juan, King or Aragon, I., 105; II., 

102, 105 
Juan Pacheco, of Castile, 1C5 
Juarez, Benito, 187 
Juba, King of Numidia, 43 
Jugurthine war, 38 
Julia, daughter of Augustus, 47 
Julian, Roman Emperor, 51 
Julian House, 47 (see Genealogies) 
Julian, cardinal, 95 
Julius II., Pope, 112 
Justinian I., 55 
Jutes, 56 



Kabilovitsh, 94 
Kansas, troubles in, 181 
Karachardas, King of Kardumias, 5 
Karabel, rocks of, 7 
Kara, Mustapha, 140 
Karkamis of the Hittites. 11 
Karnak. temple of, 6, 7, 11 
Kar-Shalmaneser, 10 
Kartoom. siege of, 164 
Kas (Ethiopia), 7, 9 
Kazan annexed to Russia, 97 
Kearney, General, 178 
Khafra, King of Egypt, 2 
Khita-Sira, King of the Hittites, 7 
Khu-en-Aten (Amenhotep IV.), 6 
Knights of St, John, 79; Templars, 71 

of St. Mary, 79; of Rhodes, 119 
Kollin, battle of, 143 
Koniggratz, battle of, 158 
Koran, the, 60 
Kosciusko, 144 
Kosova, battle of, 94 
Kossaea, 4, 5 
Kossuth, Louis, 151, 153 
Kudurmabuk, King of Elam, 5 
Kulikova, battle of, 96 
Kurigalzu, King of Kossaea, 5 
Kymri (the Welsh), 48 



Labykixth, the, 3 

Ladislaus I., King of Hungary, 98 

Ladislaus, King of Naples, 107 

La Fayette, 174 

Lagidae, the, of Egypt (see Genealo- 
gies) 

Lamachus, 22 

Lamartine, 152, 153 

La Valetta. 120 

Lancaster, house of, 99, 100 

Langton, Stephen, of Canterbury, 81 

Languedoc, 62, 82 

La Rochelle, naval fight off, 89 

Latin empire in the East, 77 

Latins, 27 

Laws of Draco, 18; Solon, 18 

Lazar, the Servian Tsar, 93 

League of the public weal, 101 

Lee, General Robert E., 182 

Leipsic, battles of, 130, 149 

Legnano, battle of, 83 

Leo I. (the Great), Bishop of Rome, 
53; III., Pope, 61, 63; VIII., 68; X., 
Pope, 113 

Leon, kingdom of, 105 

Leonardo da Vinci, 111 

Leonidas, King of Sparta, 20 

Leopold, Duke of Austria, 77 

Leopold, of Habsburg, I., 104; II., 135 

Leopold, Prince, 159 

Lepanto, battle of, 123 

Lepidus, M. ^milius, 44 

Leucopetra, battle of, 37 

Leuthen, battle of, 143 

Lexington, battle of, 174 

Libyans, 2 

Licinius, Emperor of Eastern Empire, 
51 

Liegnitz, battle of, 86, 143 



Ligurians, 27 

Limoges, sack of, 66 

Lincoln, Abraham, Pres. of U. S., 182 

Lionel of Clarence, 100 

Lithuania, 86, 140, 141, 144 

Livy, 47 

Llewellyn, of Wales, 87 

Lobkositz, 143 

Lombards, 54, 63 

London Company, 170 

Longobards, 55 

Lorraine, 64, 67, 102 (see Genealogies) 

Lothar, Emperor H. R. E., 64 

Lothar, Son of Hugh of Provence, 68 

Lothar, the Saxon, 83 

Louis, King of France, IV. (d'Outre- 
mer), 69; VI. (the Fat), 80; VII., 76, 
80; VIII., 82; IX., 78, 82, 86; XI.. 101: 
XII., Ill, 112; XIII., 127, 130; XIV., 
130, 133; XV., 145; XVI., 145, 146, 
174; XVIII., 152 

Louis, Son of Charlemagne, 63 

Louis, Duke of Orleans, 98 

Louis, King of the Franks, 64 

Louis, King of Hungary, II., 119, 120 

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (see Napo- 
leon III.) 

Louis of Bavaria, 91 

Louis Philippe, 151 

Louis, Duke of Anjou, 107 

Louis II., King of Naples, 107 

Louise of Savoy, 114 

Louisiana, settled, 171; lost to France, 
172; purchased by U. S., 175, 178 

Low Countries under Philip, 100 

Lubeck, 79; peace of, 128 

Lucania, 27 

Ludovico il Moro, 110, 111 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 178 

Lusitania, 41, 42 

Luther, Martin, 117, 118 

Luxemburg, House of, 90 (see Geneal- 
ogies) 

Luxor, temple of, 8 

Lydia, 13 

Lysimachus, 25 

Macedonia, successors of Alexander 
in, 25; war with Rome, 35; Bulga- 
rians in, 92 

Macedonian era, 24 

MacMahon, Marshal, 159, 161 

Madison, James, Pres. of U. S., 178, 
186 

Madrid, peace of, 148 

Magdeburg, sack of, 129 

Magharah, Wady, 2 

Magna Charta, 81 

Magnesia, battle of, 35 

Magyars, 68, 151 

Makan, 5 

Malek-Shah, empire of, 93 

Malta, island of, 120 

Mamelukes, 78 

Manfred, 84 

Manichaeans, 82 

Manila, battle of, 184 

Manlius, Marcus, 38 

Mantes, burning of, 71 

Mantinea, victory at, 24 

Marathon, battle of, 20 

Marchfield, battle of, 90 

Mardonius, 20 

Marengo, battle of, 147 

Margaret of Anjou, 100 

Margaret, Queen of Denmark, 125 

Margaret of Flanders, 98 

Margaret, the Maid of Norway, 87 

Maria, daughter of Louis the Great, 
91 

Maria Louisa, of Parma, 148, 151 

Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 
142 

217 



Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV., 

133 
Maria de Valois, 102 
Marie Antoinette, 146, 174 
Marignano, battle of, 113 
Marius, Caius, 38, 40 
Marlborough, Duke of, 136 
Marston Moor, battle of, 132 
Martel, Charles, 61 
Martin (Ihe Elder), King of Aragon, 

105 
Martinez de la Rosa, 150 
Mary Tudor, Queen of England, 121 
Mary, wife of William III,, 135 
Mary, Queen of Scots. 121 
Mary, wife of Maximilian II., 124 
Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, 

117 
Maryland, founded, 170, 171 
Maserfeld, battle of, 58 
Masinissa, King of Numidia, 36 
Massachusetts, 170, 173 
Matilda of England. 71 
Matthias, King of Bohemia, 124 
Maurice, Duke of Saxony, 119 
Mautenur, King of the Hittites, 7 
Maximilian I., of Austria. 102. 112, 117 
Maximilian of Bavaria. 127 
Maximilian, King of Mexico, 184 
Maximin, Roman Emperor, 50 
Maximus, Roman Emperor, 53 
Mayence, Archbishop of, 90 
Mayenne, Duke of, 123 
Mazarin, Cardinal, 133 
Mazeppa, 141 
Mazzini, 151 

McClellan, General George B., 182 
McKinley. Wm., Pres. of U. S., 186 
Meade, General G. G., 182 
Mecca, 60, 75 
Media, 11, 12. 13 
Medici, family of, 106, 110, 113 
Megabazus, 14 
Mehemet Ali, 164 
Melanchthon. Philip, 118 
Melik-es-Saleh, 78 
Melpum, fall of, 32 
Melucha, 5 
Memphis, 2 
Memmius, C, 38 
Menephfhak, King of Egypt, 8 
Mennon, of Persia, 24 
Mercia, 57, 58 
Meri, lake of, 3 

Merina Pepi I., King of Memphis, 2 
Merovingians, 55 (see Genealogies) 
Messenia, 33 
Metellus. Q. C, 38 
Methodius, the Slavonic apostle, 92 
Metternich, 151, 153 
Metz, 56, 159 

Mexico, 179, 180, 186, 187, 188 
Michaila Romanoff. Tsar of Russia, 

138 
Mid-Britain, 57 
Middle Ages, 55; feudalism in, 72; 

church in, 74; religious orders. 79; 

free cities, 104 
Milan, 50; the Visconti and Sforza, 

106, 110; under Louis XII., Ill; 

taken by Francis I., 113; given to 

Italy, 159 
Miltiades, 20 
Misenum, treaty of, 45 
Mississippi River discovered, 168 
Missouri Compromise, 181 
Mithridates, King of Pontus, IV., 40; 

v., 40, 41, 42 
Moawyiah, governor of Syria, 60 
Modred, 57 
Moeris, lake of, 3 
Moesia. 50, 52, 92 
Mohacz, battle of, 120 



MUlI — PJ.A 



IMohamed Kiuprili, 139 

Mohammed, tiO (see Arabic Empire) 

Mohamet I., 95; II., 95; III., 123; IV., 

139, 140 
Mohammed Montatur, 60 
Moldavia, 92 
Moncada, Hugo de, 115 
Mongols, 62: first invasion, 84, 85, 86; ' 

second invasion. 94 \ 

Monroe, James, Pres. of U. S., 186 
Montazem, last Caliph of Bagdad, 62 
Montcalm, 172 
Montecuculi, 139 
xMontfaugon, battle of, 69 
Montferrat, Marquis of, 77 
Montfort. Simon de, 82, 83 
Montpensier, Gilbert de, 111; Duke of, 

151 
Moors. 61, 117 
Morabites, empire of, 74 
Morat, battle of. 102 
Morgarten, battle of, 104 
Mortimer, Roger, 88 
Moscow, 86; princes of, 96; burning 

of. 149 
Moslems (see Arabic Empire) 
Muhlberg, battle of, 119 
Mlihldorf, battle of, 91 
Muiz, Caliph, 62 
Mummius, L., 37 
Munda, battle of, 43 
Murad V., Sultan, 163 
Murat, King of Naples, 148 
Murfreesborough, battle of, 182 
Musa, son of Bajazet, 95 
Mycernius, King of Egypt, 2 
Mylse, battles at, 34, 35. 

Nabonidos, King of Babylon, 13 

Nabopolassar, King of Babylon, 11 

Naefels, battle of, 104 

Naharina country, 6, 7 

Na-iri lands, 5 

Nancy, battle at, 102 

Nantes, Edict of, 123; its revocation, 
134 

Napoleon I., 147, 148, 149; III., 153, 
157, 159, 186 

Napoleon, Jerome, 147 

Naples, 96; early history, 107; under 
house of Anjou, 107; invaded by 
Charles VIII., 110; lost to France, 
115; acquired by Austria, 137; Bona- 
parte conquers, 147; Joseph Bona- 
parte, King, 148; restored to the 
Bourbons, 149; the revolution in, 
151; Ferdinand II., 155 

Naseby, battle of, 132 

Narva, battle of, 141 

Navarre, 105 

Nearchus, 25 

Nebuchadnezzar, 13 

Necho, King of Egypt, 13 

Neerwinden, battle of, 135 

Nelson, Admiral, 147 

Nemania, Stephen, of Serbia, 92 

Nemours, Duke of, 112 

Nero, Roman Emperor, 47 

Nerva, Roman Emperor, 49 

Netherlands, under Burgundian rule, 
99; under Charles V., 117; revolt, 
122; union of Utrecht, 122: attack 
of Louis XIV., 134 (see Belgium and 
Holland) 

Neuremberg, peace of, 118 

Neustria, 56 

New England Colonies, 170, 171, 172 

New Forest, 70 

New Hampshire, colony of, 170 

New Jersey, settlement of, 171 

New Netherlands, 170 

New Orleans, battle of, 179 

New Sweden, colony of, 170 



New York, first so called, 171 

Nia (Thebes), 3 

Niagara, Fort, 172 

Niceea, Council of, 51 

Nicaea, Greek Empire of, 75, 78 

Nicholas I., Tsar of Russia, 154 

Nicholas, Prince of Montenegro, 163 

Nicholas V., Pope, 95 

Nicias, of Athens, 22 

Nicomedes I., King of Bithynia, 41 

Nicopolis, battle of, 94 

Nid-de-Merle, forest of, 69 

Nile, mouths of, 9 

Nimwegen. treaty of, 134 

No-Amun (Thebes), 3 

Noor-el-Deen, Emir of Mosul, 76 

Noreia. battle of. 38 

Nordlingen, battle of, 129 

Noricum. 50, 52 

Normandy under William, 70; under 
Henry II.. 79; under Philip Augus- 
tus. 80, 81 

Normans, settlements in Gaul, 66; 
conquest of England, 67: in Italy 
and Sicily, 74; England under the, 
70 

Northallerton, battle of, 71 

Northampton, battle of, 100 

North German Confederation, 159 

Northern war, 140 

Northmen, 69 

Northumberland, Duke of, 121 

Norway, union of Calmar, 125 

Novara. battles of. 111, 113, 155 

Nova Scotia. 167, 174 

Numantia, 37, 38 

Nuremberg, peace of, 118 

Nystadt, peace of, 141 

OCHUS, King of Persia, 23 

Octavianus, C, Julius Caesar, 44, 45, 
46 (see Augustus) 

Octavius, Cnaeus, 40 

Octal, Emperor of the Mongols, 86 

Odoacer, ruler of Italy, 53, 54 

Offa, King of Mercia, 59 

Oglethorpe, James, 171 

Ohio Company, 172 

Oldenburg House of, 128 (see Geneal- 
ogies) 

Old League of High Germany, 104 

Oliva, treaty of, 138 

Omar, 60 

Ommiads, 61 

On (Heliopolis), 3 

Orchan, son of Osman, 93 

Orleans, city of, 56 

Orleans, house of, 98. Ill, 151 

Orsini, family of, 103 

Osfrith, son of Eadwine, 58 

Osman, house of, 93 

Osman Pacha, 163 

Ostrogoths, 54 

Oswiu, King of Northumbria, 58 

Othman, 60 

Otho. -Roman Emperor, 47 

Otranto, battle of, 96 

Otto I. (the Great), 68; II., 69; III., 
69; IV., 81 

Ottocar II., King of Bohemia, 90 

Ottoman Empire (see Turkey) 

Ottoman sovereigns (see Genealogies) 

Ourique, battle of, 106 

Oxford, 116 

Padua, siege of. 112 
Paeda. King of Mercia, 58 
Pakenham, General, 179 
Palffiologus, Michael, 78 
Palestine, 9, 76. 78 
Palo Alto, battle of, 179 
Pan-American Exposition, 186 
Pandulph, papal legate, 81 

218 



Pannonia, province of, 50, 52 

Papacy, Leo I. (the Great), 53; III., 
61, 63; in Gaul, 55; in Britain, 58; 
relation to Charlemagne, 63; founda- 
tion of Papal States, 63; Alexander 
II., 67; the Holy Roman Empire, 
68; John XII. and Otto, 68; Leo 
VIII. and Benedict, 68; Gregory 
VII., 74; and Henry IV., 75; John 
cedes England to, 81; Clement V. at 
Avignon, 90; Nicholas V., 95; Pius 
II. and Paul II., 96: period of the 
Great Schism, 103: Julius II., 112, 
113; league of Cambray, 114; rela- 
tions with Henry VIII., 116; and the 
Reformation, 118; the Holy League, 
126; the Catholic League, 127; and 
James II., 134; Pope Pius IX., 151, 
155 

Paris, besieged by Normans, 66, 69; 
Black Death in, 86; siege of, by Ger- 
mans, 159; the Commune in, 161 (see 
France); Treaty of, 184 

Parliament, rise of, 83; Petition of 
Right, 131; under Edward I., 87; 
Long, 131 

Parma, Duke of, 122 

Parthia, 42, 47 

Parysatis, daughter of Artaxerxes, 23 

Paul III., Pope, 119 

Paulus, L. ^milius, 35 

Pausanius, King of Sparta, 21 

Pavia, 55, 68, 114 

Peasant War in Germany, 118 

Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, 89, 105 

Pedro III., of Aragon, 105 

Pelopidas, 23 

Peloponnesian War, 21 

Pembroke, Earl of, 82 

Penda, King of Mercia, 58 

Pennsylvania, colony of, 171 

Pepin of Heristal, 61, 62 

Pepin, son of Charles Martel, 62 

Percy, family of, 90 

Pergamus, 26, 35 

Pericles, 21 

Perry, Commodore, 178 

Persia, under Cyrus, 14; wars with 
Greece, 19, 20; invaded by Alexan- 
der, 24; wars with Rome, 40, 42 

Petition of Right, 131 

Peter III., of Aragon and Sicily, 84 

Peter II., Duke of Bourbon, 114 

Peter the Great, of Russia, 139, 141 

Peter the Hermit, 75 

Pharnaces, 43 

Philip II. (Augustus), King of France, 
77, 80, 97; IV., 79, 87; VI., 88 

Philip the Bold, 98, 99 

Philip, King of Macedon, 24; V., 35 

Philip II., of Spain, 117, 121, 122, 123; 
v., 136 

Philip de Ronore, 98 

Philippi, battle of, 45 

Philippine Islands, 185 

Phoenicians, 9 

Phraates, King of Parthia, 42, 47 

Phrygia, 52 

Piacenza, council at, 75 

Picts, 56, 87 

Piedmont (see Italy) 

Pierce, Franklin, Pres. of U. S., 186 

Pierre de Castilnau, 82 

Pillars of Hercules, 54 

Pinzon, Martin, of Palos, 109 

Pipin, King of the Franks, 62 

Pisa, 74; Council of, 103 

Pisistratus, 19 

Pitt, William, 143, 147, 172 

Pius II., Pope, 96; IX., 151 

Placidse, 52 

Plantagenets, 69, 79 

Plata?a, battle of, 21 



PL A — sp:x 



Plattsburg, battle of, 179 

Pleistarchus, ruler of Cilicia, 25 

Plevna, siege of, 163 

Plymouth Company, 170 

Poitiers, battles of, 61: under Henry 
II., 79, 81, 88: becomes English, 89; 
Charles VII. crowned at, 99 

Poland, 84, 104; retrospect of its his- 
tory, 143; partition, 144: duchy of 
Warsaw, 147; absorbed by Prussia 
and Russia, 150 

Polignac, Prince, 152 

Polk, James K., Pres. of U. S., 186 

Pollentia, battle of, 52 • 

Polovtsi, the, 86 

Pompeius, Cneius, 41, 42, 43 

Pontus, province of, 40 

Popes (see Papacy and individual 
names) 

Posen given to Prussia, 150 

Potidaea, colony of, 21 

Portugal, history of, 104, 106: voyages 
of discovery by, 108, 109, 168; rela- 
tions to Napoleon, 148; Wellington 
in, 148 

Porto Rico, 185 

Powyss, Prince of, 59 

Prague, 91: peace of, 129, 159 

Preston Pans, battle of, 132 

Prim, General, 159 

Procop, the Hussite, 103 

Protestants, 118, 122, 126, 128, 130, 134 

Protestant Union, 126 

Prusias, King of Bithynia, 35 

Prussia, under the Teutonic Knights, 
104; part annexed to Poland, 104; 
early history, 142; Seven Years' 
War, 143; obtains part of Poland, 
144; war with Napoleon, 147, 149; 
Congress of Vienna, 149; rises into 
Germany, 154; Austro-Prussian War, 
158; Franco-Prussian War, 159 

Psammetichus I., 11; II., 13 

Ptolemais, siege of, 76, 79 

Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, 25, 26 (see 
Genealogies) 

Public Weal League, 101 

Pueblo, capture of, 188 

Pul, King of Assyria, 11 

Pulawski, of Poland, 143 

Pultowa, battle of, 141 

Punic Wars, 33, 34, 36 

Puritans, 132 

Pydna, battle of, 35 

Pyramids, 2 

Pyrrhus, war with, 33 

Pytheas, of Marseilles, 48 

Quadruple Alliance, 147 
Quatre Bras, battle of, 149 
Quebec, capture of, by Wolfe, 172 

Radetsky, 155 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 170 

Rameses I., King of Egypt, 7; II. (the 

Great), 7; III., 8 
Randolph, John, 176 
Raoul of Burgundy, 69 
Raoul, a Cistercian monk, 82 
Raphia, battle at, 11 
Ratisbon, diet of, 127 
Ravaillac, Frangois, 127 
Raymond, Count of Barcelona, 105 
Raymond of Cordova, 113 
Raymond of Toulouse, 75, 82 
Readwald, King of East Anglia, 58 
Red Comyn, The, 87 
Reformation, 117, 118, 123 
Renaissance, 107 

Rene II., Duke of Lorraine, 102, 107 
Republican party (the earlier), 177 
Rhine, Confederation of the, 149 



Rhodes, 25, 35, 96 

Rhode Island, settled, 170, 171 

Richard I. (Ca)ur-de-Liou), King of 
England, 77; II., 89; III., 101 

Richard the Fearless, 67 

Richard, Earl of Cornwall, 84 

Richard the Good, 65, 67 

Richard, Duke of York, 100 

Richelieu, 130 

Rienzi, Cola di. 103 

Robert, Count of Artois, 97 

Robert, Count of Flanders, 75 

Robert, Count of Paris, 61 

Robert, Duke of Normandy, 71, 75 

Robert the Strong, 69 

Robespierre, 146 

Rochambeau, Count, 174 

Rocroy, battle of, 130 

Roeskilde, peace of, 138 

Rollo the Northman, 66 

Roman roads in Italy, 33; in Britain, 
49 

Romanians, 92 

Romanoff, Plouse of, 138 (see Genealo- 
gies) 

Rome, sources of its history, 27; its 
settlement, 2', 28: constitution, 28; 
patricians and plebeians, 28; army, 
28; expulsion of the kings, 29; 
commonwealth, 29: plebeian revolt, 
30; war with .Equi and Volscians, 
31; decemvirs, 31; political equality, 
31; burned by the Celts, 32; Samnite 
wars, 32, 33; roads, 33; war with 
Pyrrhus, 33; United Italy, 33; Punic 
wars, 33, 34, 36: conquest of Mace- 
donia, 35; Acheean war, 36; Numan- 
tine war, 37; civil wars, 37; Jugur- 
thine war, 38; Cimbric war, 38; 
social war, 39; the army, 39; Mith- 
ridatic wars, 40, 41: Caesar, 42; First 
Triumvirate, 42; conquest of Gaul, 
43; Second Triumvirate, 44; the Em- 
pire, 4&-53; Augustus, 46; constitu- 
tion, 46; the provinces, 47; Julian 
House, 47; first anarchy, 47; the 
Flavii, 48: conquest of Britain, 48; 
the Adoptive Emperors, 49; the Bar- 
rack Emperors, 50: the Partnership 
Emperors, 50; House of Constan- 
tine, 51; House of Valentian, 51; 
division of the Empire, 52; fall of 
the Western Empire, 53 

Romulus, Augustulus, Roman em- 
peror, 53 

Roosevelt, Theodore, Pres. of U. S., 
186 

Roses, war of the, 100 

Rosetta Stone, 1 

Ross, General, 178 

Rossbach, battle of, 143 

Rouen, 66, 80 

Roum, Sultans of, 93 

Royal Charter, signed by Rudolph, 
124 

Rubicon, crossed by Caesar, 43 

Rudolph, Count of Hapsburg, 90 

Rudolph, King of Hungary, 124 

Rufinus, 52 

Runnymede, 81 

Rupert, Count Palatine, 91 

Rurik, House of, 86, 138 

Russia— growth, 85; old Russia, 86; 
invaded by the Mongols, 86: under 
the Tatar yoke, 96; Ivan III., 96; 
Ivan IV., 97; anarchy in, 138; rise 
of the Romanoffs, 138; Tsar Alexis, 
139: Peter the Great, 139, 141; gets 
part of Poland, 144; Napoleon in- 
vades, 149; Congress of Vienna, 150; 
Crimean War, 157; Russo-Turkish 
War, 161 

Ryswick, peace of, 135 

219 



St. Albaxs, battle of, 100 

St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 122 

St. Dominic, 82 

St. Gotthard, battle of, 139 

St. Just, 146 

Salah-ed-Deen (Saladin), 76 

Salamis, battle of, 20 

Salian Emperors (see Genealogies) 

Salic Law, 88 

Salisbury, Earl of, 100 

Sammughes, King of Assyria, 11 

Samnites, 27, 32, 33 

Sancho I., King of Portugal, 105 

San Salvador discovered, 109 

San Stefano, treaty of, 163 

Santa Anna, 187 

Saracens (see Arabic Empire) 

Saratoga, battle of, 174 

Sardanapalus I., King of Assyria, 11 

Sardes burned by the Greeks, 19 

Sardinia, 34, 55, 155, 158 (see Italy) 

Sargon I., King of Assyria, 5; the 
usurper, 11 

Saturnius, 39 

Saul, King of the Jews, 9 

Savella, family of, 103 

Savoy, House of (see Genealogies) 

Savoy, 137, 147 (see Italy) 

Savonarola, Jerome, 110 

Saxe Weimar, 129, 130 

Saxons, their conquest of England, 
56: conversion, 58 

Saxony, the duchy, 67; the Saxon 
kings of, 69: under Henry the Proud 
and Henry the Lion, 83: given to 
Frederick the Warlike, 104; in the 
Thirty Years' War, 129; in Seven 
Years' W^ar, 143; larger part given 
to Prussia, 150; in Austro-Prussian 
War, 158 

Scanderbeg, Prince of Albania, 96 

Scandinavians (see Denmark, Norway, 
Sweden) 

Schildberger, of Munich, 94 

Schonbrunn, peace of, 148 

Scipio, L. Cornelius, 35 

Scipio, P. Cornelius (Africanus), 35 

Scipio, P. Cornelius (^milianus), 37 

Scipio, P. Nasica, 37 

Scotland, Romans in, 49; war with 
Edward I., 87; Baliol's Rebellion, 
87; under William Wallace, 87; 
under Robert Bruce, 88: indepen- 
dence of, 88: relations to Charles I. 
and Cromwell, 132 

Scott, General Winfield, 180 

Scrobsbyryg, capture of, 59 

Scythians, 11, 14 

Sebastopol, 158 

Secession, ordinance of, 181 

Sedan, surrender of, 159 

SeleucidsB, Kings of Syria, 25 

Seleucus, King of Syria, 25, 35 

Selim I., Sultan of Turkey, 119 

Seljukes, the, 74 

Seminara, battle at, 112 

Sempach, battle of, 104 

Senlac, battle of, 59 

Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 11 

Sentinum, battle of, 33 

Septimania, the, 54 

Sertorius, O., 41 

Servius Tullius, 28 

Severus, House of (see Genealogies) 

Sestura (Rameses ID, 7 

Sethos I., King of Egypt, 7 

Set-nekth, King of Egypt, 8 

Seven Years' War, 143 

Severus Alexander, 50 

Serbia, 69; settlement, 92: war with 
Turks, 93; history of, 161 

Sextus, son of Pompey, 45 



SFO — VEH 



Sforza, Francesco, 106, 114; Ludovico, 
110, 113 (see Genealogies) 

Shalmaneser II., King of Assyria, 10 

Sherman, General W. T., 182 

Sheshunk, King of Egypt, 9 

Shiites, the, 60 

Sibir, King of Babylon, 10 

Sicilian expedition, 21 

Sicilian Vespers, 84 

Sicily, Greeks and Phoenicians in, 34; 
conquered by Belisarius, 55; Nor- 
mans in, 74; under the Hofenstau- 
fens, 83; Sicilian Vespers, 84; under 
house of Anjou, 84, 105; ceded to 
Savoy, 137; given to the Bourbons, 
149 (see Italy) 

Sigehert, King of Austrasia, 56 

Sigismund, 91, 94, 103 

Sigismund I., King of Poland, 125 

Sigismund, John, of Bradenburg, 126 

Silesia, 91; ceded to Prussia, 142 

Simon, Tsar of Bulgaria, 92 

Sinope, battle of, 157 

Sippara (Agade), library of, 5 

Slavery in United States, 180, 181, 182 

Slavonia, 84, 85, 92, 151, 161 

Sleswick-Holstein, question, 156; war, 
158 

Sluys, battle of, 89 

Smalkalden, league of, 118 

Smyrna, 12 

Snefru, King of Memphis, 2 

Sobieski, John, 140 

Soissons, 55, 56, 62 

Soliman I. (the magnificent). Sultan, 
118, 120, 121 

Solomon, King of the Jews, 10 

Solon of Athens, 18 

Sosigenes, the mathematician, 44 

Soto, Hernando de, 168 

Soudan, the, 164 

Sources of History, Egyptian, 1; 
Babylonian, 3; Syrian, 6; Greek, 15; 
Roman, 27; English, 48 

South America, discovered, 109, 189 

South Carolina, secession of, 181 

Spain, Phoenician commerce with, 9; 
during the Punic wars, 34; con- 
quered by Scipio, 37; invaded by the 
Cimbri, 38; Caesar in, 43; Visi-Goths 
in, 54, 56; Arabs conquer, 61, 62; 
Christian kingdoms of, 104; Castile, 
105; Aragon, 105; acquires Naples, 
107; Voyages of discovery by, 109; 
League of Cambray, 114; Spanish 
ascendency in Italy, 116; consolida- 
tion of, 117; the leading power in 
Europe, 117; under Philip II., 122; 
the Armada, 122; under the Habs- 
burgs, 124; under Philip II., 124; 
war of the Spanish Succession, 135; 
peace of Utrecht, 137; under control 
of Napoleon, 148; the Restoration 
in, 150; under Ferdinand VII., 150; 
insurrection of Don Carlos, 150; 
Spanish Revolution, 160; discoveries 
in America, 168; sells Florida to 
United States, 179; war with United 
States, 184; banished from Western 
Hemisphere, 191 

Sparta, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23 

Spartacus, 41 

Speier, second diet at, 118 

Stamford Bridge, battle of, 67 

Stamp Act, the, 173 

Stahremberg, Count, 140 

Standard, battle of the, 71 

Stanislaus, King of Poland, 144 

Stanton, E. A., 182 

States General, 99, 102, 123 

Steenkirk, battle of, 135 

Stephen, King of England, 71 

Stephen III., Pope, 63 



Stilicho, 52 

Stirling, battle of, 87 

Stonehenge, 48 

Streoneshalch (Whitby), synod at, 58 

Stuart, House of, 125 

Sture, Sten, King of Sweden, 125 

Suabia, 67, S3, 102 

Suez Canal, 164 

Sulla, L. Cornelius, 40, 41 

Sumer, 5 

Sunnites, 61 

Sven, King of Denmark, 65 

Sweden under Vasa, 125; Gustavus 
Adolphus and the Thirty Years' 
War, 128; Charles XII., 140; in the 
Northern War, 141; in the Seven 
Years' War, 143; a member of the 
Quadruple Alliance, 147 

Swiss League, 104 

Switzerland, a part of Aries ceded to 
the empire, 97; war with Charles 
the Bold, 102; league against Habs- 
burg, 104; league with the pope, 112; 
Swiss reformation, 118; indepen- 
dence assured, 150 

Syagrius, 55 

Syracuse, 16, 34 

Syria, 76 

Tagliacozzo, battle of, 84 

Talbot, General, 99 

Tamerlane, 94 

T-Ape (Thebes), 3 

Ta-meh (North Land), 2 

Tarentum, 33 

Ta-res (South Land), 2 

Tatars 96 

Taylor! Zachary, Pres. of U. S., 180, 186 

Tehenu, tribe of, 7 

Tekeli, Count, 140 

Telesinus, C. Pontius, 41 

Temenidae, the (see Genealogies) 

Tenchebray, battle of, 71 

Testry, battle of, 62 

Teutoburg Forest, 47 

Teutonic Knights, 104, 126 

Teutons, 38, 56 

Tewfik Pacha, 164 

Tewkesbury, battle of, 101 

Texas, its independence, 179 

Thales of Miletus, 12 

Thapsus, battle of, 43 

Thebes (Egypt), 3, 8, 11 

Thebes (Greece), 23 

Themistocles, 20 

Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
79 

Theodat the Ostro-Goth, 55 

Theodoric, King of the Franks, 54 

Theodosius I. (the Great), 52; II., 52 
(see Genealogies) 

Theophania, wife of Otto II., 68 

Thermopylae, battle of, 20, 35 

Thiers, 161 

Thirty Years' War, 124, 127, 128, 130 

Thomas of Lancaster, 88 

Thorn, peace of, 104; treaty of, 142 

Thothmes I., King of Egypt, 6; III., 6 

Thrace, 14, 52 

Thucydides, 15 

Thuringians, 56 

Ti, King of Egypt, 2 

Tiberias, battle of, 76 

Tiberius, Claudius Nero, Roman Em- 
peror, 47 

Ticinus, battle of, 34 

Ticonderoga captured, 172 

Tiglath-Pileser I., King of Assyria, 10 

Tigranes, King of Armenia, 41 

Tilsit, peace of, 147 

Tilly, 127, 128 

Timour, 94 

Timourlenk (Tamerlane), 94 

230 



Tiryns, city of, 17 

Tissaphernes, 23 

Titus, Roman Emperor, 48 

Togrul Beg, 93 

Torgau, battle of, 143 

Torthulf, the Plantagenet, 69 

Tostig, the Norman, 67 

Tours, battles at, 61 

Towton, battle of, 100 

Trajan, Roman Emperor, 49 

Trasimene Lake, battle of, 34 

Travendahl, treaty of, 140 

Trebia, battle of, 34 

Triple Alliance, 133 

Troy, 35 

Troyes, treaty of, 98 

Tudor, House of, 101, 116 (see Geneal- 
ogies) 

Tugultininep, conqueror of Kossaea, 8 

Tunis, 62, 79 

Turks, origin of, 93; the Seljukian, 
93; the Osmanli, 93; the Janissaries, 
93; Amurath I., 93; in Europe, 93; 
under Bajazet, 93; second Osmanli 
empire, 95; conquest of Constanti- 
nople, 95; capture the Venetian Islr 
ands, 96; lose the Crimea, 97; war 
with Charles V., 118, 120; become 
caliphs under Selim I., 119; Solyman 
besieges Vienna, 120; battle of Le- 
panto, 123; the great Vizirs, 139; 
battle of St. Gotthard, 139; second 
siege of Vienna, 140; the Crimean 
War, 157; Russo-Turkish War, 161; 
treaty of Berlin, 163; relations to 
Egypt, 164 

Tutuilla, 185 

Tyler, John, Pres. of U. S., 186 

Tyre, 11, 24 

Ulm, battle of, 147 

Ulrica, Eleonora, Queen of Sweden, 
141 

Umbrians, 27 

United States of America, foundation 
of the republic, 173; Declaration of 
Independence, 174; War of the Rev- 
olution, 174; alliance with France, 
174; recognition of their indepen- 
dence, 175; articles of confederation, 
175; the constitution, 176; thirty 
years' peace, 177; War of 1812, 178; 
Indian wars, 179; Mexican War, 179; 
Mexican cessions, 180; slavery troub- 
les, 180, 181; secession of the South- 
ern States, 181; Civil War, 181; 
emancipation of slavery, 182; recon- 
struction, 183; war with Spain, 184; 
insular governments, 185; sends 
troops to China, 185; presidents, 186 

Union of Calmar, 125 

Urban II., Pope, 75 

Usurtasen I., King of Egypt, 3, 6 

Utrecht, union of, 122; peace of, 137 

Valexs, Roman Emperor, 51 
Valentinian I., Roman Emperor, 51; 

II., 51; III., 52 
Valois, House of, 88, 97, 111 (see 

Genealogies) 
Van Buren, Martin, Pres. of U. S., 186 
Vandals, 53, 55 
Varna, battle of, 95 
Varus, Quintilius, 47 
Vasa, Gustavus, 125 
Vasa, House of, 124 
Vasco da Gama, 109 
Vassily III., Tsar of Russia, 97 
Veil, 31 

Valerius, Manius, 30 
Venetians, 32, 33 
Venice, 77, 96, 106, 112, 123, 159 
Vera Cruz, capture of, 180 



VER — ZUR 



Vercellae, battle of, 39 

Verdun, treaty of, 63 

Vergennes, minister of Louis XVI., 
174 

Verona, 39, 54 

Verrazano, 168 

Vervins, peace of, 123 

Vespasian, Titus Flavius, 48 

Vicksburg, capture of, 182 

Victor Emmanuel I., King of Italy, 
155; III., 155 

Victor Amadeus, of Savoy, 137 

Victoria, Queen of England, 165, 166 

Victorian Reign, close of, 166 

Vidomar of Limoges, 81 

Vienna, sieges of, 120, 140; congress 
of, 149 

Villars, General, 136 

Villiers, George, 131 

Virgil, 47 

Virginia, settlement of, 170; opposes 
the Stamp Act, 173 

Viriathus of Numantia, 37 

Visi-Goths, 51, 52, 54 

Visconti, House of, 106 (see Genealo- 
gies) 

Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, 106 

Vitellius, Roman Emperor, 47 

Vladimir, 86 

Volsci, the, 31 

Wagram, battle of, 148 
Wakefield, battle of, 100 
Wales, 58, 59, 87 
Wallace, William, 87 
Wallachia, 92 



Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland, 128 

Walter the Penniless, 75 

Waltzemiiller, Martin, 109 

Wandewash, battle of, 165 

Warsaw, battle of, 138; Duchy of, 147 

Warwick, Earl of, 99 

Washington, George, at Fort Du- 

quesne, 172; commander-in-chief 174; 

president, 176; farewell address, 177 
Washington City, capital moved to, 

177; captured by the British, 178 
Wat the Tyler, rebellion of, 90 
Waterloo, battle of, 149 
Watling Street, 49, 57, 65 
Watt, James, 180 
Wedmore, peace of, 65 
Weissenberg, battle of, 127, 159 
Welau, treaty of, 138 
Welid L, Caliph, 61 
Wellington (Marquis of Wellesley),148 
Wenceslaus, 91 
Wessex, 57, 59 
Westeras, diet of, 125 
Western Empire separated from the 

Eastern, 52; its fall, 53; restored by 

Charlemagne, 64 
West Indies discovered, 109, 168 
West Goths, 52, 54 
Westphalia, peace of, 130 
Wettin, House of, 104 (see Genealo- 
gies) 
Whitney, Eli, 180 
Wiclif, John, 103 
William I, (the Conqueror), King of 

England, 67, 70; II., 71; III., 135, 136 
William I., Emperor of Germany, 160 



William, Prince of Orange, 122, 134 

William, King of Sicily, 83 

William the Lion, King of the Scots, 
80 

William Longswood, 67 

William, Earl of Pembroke, 82 

Williams, Roger, 171 

Windischgratz, of Prague, 153 

Winwidfield, battle of, 58 

Wittelsbach, House of, 126 (see Gene- 
alogies) 

Wladislaus, King of Poland, 143 

Wolfe, General, 172 

Wolseley, Sir Garnet, 164 

Wolsey, Cardinal, 116 

Worms, diet of, 75, 118 

Worth, battle of, 159 

Wulfhere, King of Mercia, 58 

Xenophon, 23 

Xeres de la Frontera, battle of, 61 

Xerxes I., King of Persia, 20, 22 

YooLAX Bey, 94 
York, House of, 100 
Yorktown, surrender of, 175 

Zapolya, John, 120 
Zama, battle of, 34 
Zara, capture of, 77 
Zarogoza, General, 188 
Zedekiah, King of Judah, 13 
Zeno, Greek Emperor, 53, 54 
Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 50 
Zisca, the Hussite, 103 
Zorndorf, battle of, 143 
Zurawna, treaty of, 140 



221 



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